Primary Source: Mahaparinibbana Sutta (Digha Nikaya).
The Buddha, accompanied by his disciple Ānanda, reached a grove outside Kusinara where he announced his impending parinibbana (final passing away).
He instructed that his remains be treated in the manner befitting a “king of kings.”
Ānanda protested that Kusinara was a small, insignificant town and suggested six great cities more worthy of such an event — Champa, Rājagriha, Śrāvastī, Sāketa, Kauśāmbī, and Vārāṇasī.
The Buddha replied that Kusinara was once Kusāvatī, the magnificent capital of King Mahā-Sudassana, extending twelve yojanas east to west and seven yojanas north to south.
He described it as prosperous and radiant, comparable to Alakananda, the city of the gods, and hence entirely worthy for his parinibbana.
Historical Setting:
The 6th century BCE was marked by a phase of philosophical inquiry, urban expansion, and economic transformation within the middle Ganga valley.
The period from c. 600 BCE thus denotes the early historical period in North India, representing a transition from the later Vedic to the proto-historic age.
According to the Dīpavaṃsa and Mahāvaṃsa, 218 years elapsed between the parinibbana of the Buddha and the consecration (abhisheka) of Emperor Aśoka.
On this basis, the Buddha’s death is dated to 544/543 BCE.
This is known as the “Uncorrected Long Chronology.”
It is accepted by Theravāda Buddhist traditions in South and Southeast Asia and marks the beginning of the Buddhasasana or Buddhist Era.
Adjusting Aśoka’s coronation to a more accurate historical date, scholars have revised the Buddha’s demise to 486–477 BCE.
Based on Sanskrit and Chinese sources, this version assumes a 100-year gap between the parinibbana and Aśoka’s consecration.
Accordingly, the Buddha’s death would have occurred around 368 BCE.
Derived from lists of Elders (Thera lists) found in Pali chronicles, this approach places the Buddha’s demise between c. 400 and 350 BCE.
Based on Aśoka’s Minor Rock Edict I, which states that 256 years had passed since the Buddha’s death at the time of its inscription.
If Aśoka’s consecration occurred in 264 BCE and the edict was issued in 227 BCE, then the parinibbana would date to 483 BCE or earlier.
Most Indian scholars favour a date of around 480 BCE.
Western scholars tend to propose a slightly later date.
Acceptance of a later chronology would necessitate re-adjustment of all early historical timelines of India.
Pali Canonical Texts:
The Digha, Majjhima, Samyutta, and Anguttara Nikayas, together with the Vinaya Pitaka, were composed between the 5th and 3rd centuries BCE.
The Sutta Nipata belongs to roughly the same period.
The Khuddaka Nikaya and Abhidhamma Pitaka represent later compilations.
Geographical Context: The literature reflects the socio-political world of the middle Ganga valley, corresponding to modern Bihar and eastern Uttar Pradesh.
Jatakas:
The textual form of the Jataka tales dates between the 3rd century BCE and the 2nd century CE.
While invaluable for moral and social insight, they cannot be treated as direct evidence for the 6th century BCE.
Date: 5th–4th century BCE.
Nature of Work: The Aṣṭādhyāyī is the oldest surviving Sanskrit grammar, comprising 3,996 sūtras, signifying the linguistic transition from Vedic to Classical Sanskrit.
Earlier grammarians existed, but Panini’s system achieved canonical status.
Influence and Reception:
Revered by Kātyāyana (4th century BCE) and Patañjali (2nd century BCE).
Patañjali refers to Panini as Bhagavān and his grammar as “mahat shāstra-ogha” (a vast ocean of knowledge).
Biography and Tradition:
Panini was a Brāhmaṇa from Śalātura in Gandhāra.
The Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang (7th century CE) records that local children in Śalātura studied grammar and a statue of Panini stood there.
The site was later identified by A. Cunningham with Lahur, near the confluence of the Kabul and Indus Rivers.
Later legends associate him with the Nanda king at Pataliputra, his teacher Varsha, and with receiving divine revelation of grammar from Lord Śiva after meditation in the Himalayas.
Historical Value:
The Aṣṭādhyāyī contains incidental references to towns, trades, coins, weights, customs, and social structures, making it an invaluable source for the 5th–4th century BCE.
Purāṇas:
Provide dynastic lists but are often inconsistent, mixing lineages and confusing chronology.
Epics – Rāmāyaṇa and Mahābhārata:
Of complex and layered composition; useful primarily for understanding cultural ideals, not precise history.
Dharmasūtras and Gṛhyasūtras:
Represent early Dharmashāstra literature.
Kane’s chronology: 600–300 BCE.
Olivelle’s revised dating: early 3rd–mid 2nd century BCE.
Major authors: Gautama, Āpastamba, Baudhāyana, and Vasiṣṭha.
Include Śrautasūtras and Gṛhyasūtras of Āpastamba, Āśvalāyana, Śāṅkhāyana etc.
These texts are normative, representing prescriptive ideals and internal Brahmanical debates rather than empirical realities.
Comprise canonical texts such as the Bhagavatī Sūtra and Hemachandra’s Pariśiṣṭaparvan.
They constitute a third major religious–literary tradition, paralleling the Buddhist and Brahmanical sources.
Works of Arrian, Curtius Rufus, Diodorus Siculus, Plutarch, and Justin describe Alexander’s invasion of India (327–326 BCE).
These were written several centuries later and reflect a Graeco-Roman interpretive and legendary framework, valuable more for cross-cultural comparison than factual precision.
Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW):
Diagnostic ceramic of the early historical period.
Chronology: 7th–2nd/1st centuries BCE.
Early phase: 7th–3rd centuries BCE.
Late phase: 3rd–1st centuries BCE.
Recent radiocarbon evidence from Ayodhya suggests beginnings possibly as early as c. 1000 BCE.
Punch-Marked Coins:
The earliest metallic currency in India.
Indicates the rise of monetized exchange and urban economic activity during this era.
Archaeological Context:
Urban settlements in the Ganga plains, specialized crafts, trade expansion, and the rise of fortified townships (nagaras) correspond with this period’s material culture.
The most widely accepted working date for the Buddha’s Parinibbana is c. 480 BCE, aligning inscriptional, textual, and archaeological evidence.
The period c. 600–300 BCE represents the formative phase of Indian civilization, characterized by:
Emergence of Mahājanapadas and early state formation.
Flourishing of heterodox philosophies (Buddhism, Jainism, Ajivika, Lokayata).
Growth of urban centres, craft production, trade networks, and monetization.
Integration of Literary and Archaeological Evidence is essential for refining chronology and understanding the early historic transformation.