Babur’s Early Life and Central Asian Background
Babur was born into the Timurid dynasty, a lineage descended from Timur and Genghis Khan. By the early 16th century, Central Asia was in turmoil: the Uzbeks had overrun Trans-Oxiana, and the Safavid dynasty was consolidating power in Iran. After several failed attempts to capture Samarqand from his uncle and the Uzbeks, Babur finally established himself in Kabul in 1504.Kabul, however, provided limited revenue and security. The region’s income could not support Babur’s begs (noble followers), and he feared a Uzbek attack. Thus, India, with its immense wealth, fertile lands, and historical ties to Timur’s conquests in Punjab, became an attractive target.
Early Engagements in India (1518–1521)
- In 1518–19, Babur captured the fort of Bhira, a strategic gateway to India.
- He requested the cession of territories from Daulat Khan Lodi, governor of Punjab, and Ibrahim Lodi, the ruler of Delhi, but Daulat Khan detained his envoys.
- In 1520–21, Babur crossed the Indus again, recapturing Bhira and Sialkot, consolidating his control over northern gateways. Lahore also capitulated, though Babur had to retreat briefly due to a revolt in Qandhar. After a year-and-a-half siege, Qandhar was secured, allowing him to refocus on India.
Invitation to Invade India (1525)
While at Peshawar in 1525, Babur received envoys from Daulat Khan Lodi and possibly Rana Sanga, inviting him to intervene in Punjab and north India. Lodi, having lost confidence in Ibrahim Lodi, hoped Babur would restore order.
- Daulat Khan assembled 30,000–40,000 men but melted away at Babur’s approach.
- Babur’s swift action allowed him to become master of Punjab, securing a foothold for further campaigns.
The Battle of Panipat (20 April 1526)
- Opponent: Ibrahim Lodi, Sultan of Delhi
- Reason: Control over Delhi and Agra; Lodi’s growing power threatened Babur’s new foothold in Punjab.
- Forces: Babur had ~12,000 men, supplemented by Indian recruits; Ibrahim Lodi had ~100,000 men and 1,000 elephants (many non-combatants).
- Tactics:
- Babur entrenched his army near Panipat.
- Constructed wagon-forts (Ottoman/Rumi device) with chained carts and breastworks.
- Used artillery and musketeers under Ottoman experts Ustad Ali and Mustafa.
- Outcome:
- Babur’s flanking maneuvers and superior artillery defeated Lodi’s army.
- Ibrahim Lodi died; ~15,000 soldiers were killed.
- Babur gained control over Delhi, Agra, and territories up to Jaunpur, acquiring immense treasure.
- Significance:
- Opened a new phase of Mughal expansion in North India.
- Babur had to contend with Rana Sanga of Mewar and Afghan chiefs before fully consolidating power.
Consolidation and Challenges Post-Panipat
- Babur faced difficulties due to hot climate, unfamiliar territory, and hostile local populations.
- Many of his begs wished to return to Kabul, but Babur allowed departures, strengthening loyalty among those who stayed.
- Rana Sanga, seeing Babur’s persistence, began preparations to expel him, leading to the next major conflict.
The Battle of Khanwa (1527)
- Opponent: Rana Sanga of Mewar and allied Rajput forces (~200,000 troops, 10,000 Afghan cavalry).
- Reason: Sanga opposed Babur’s claim to Delhi-Agra region and sought to expand Rajput influence over eastern Rajasthan and Malwa.
- Babur’s Preparations:
- Entrenched at Khanwa, ~40 km from Agra.
- Used wagon-forts, trenches, musketeers, and artillery.
- Declared a jihad to rally his troops, destroyed wine jars, banned alcohol, and abolished customs for Muslims.
- Outcome:
- Mughal artillery inflicted heavy casualties; Babur’s flanking attacks and central counterattacks secured victory.
- Rana Sanga was poisoned by his own nobles, ending his challenge to Babur.
- Significance:
- Secured Babur’s dominance in Delhi-Agra region.
- Allowed further campaigns: capture of forts like Gwaliyar, Dholpur, Alwar, and Chanderi from Medini Rai.
Campaigns Against the Afghans (1529)
- Opponent: Mahmud Lodi and other Afghan chiefs in eastern Uttar Pradesh, backed by Nusrat Shah of Bengal.
- Reason: Afghans resisted Mughal authority and threatened Babur’s consolidation.
- Battle: Babur crossed Ganga near Banaras, engaged Afghan and Bengal forces at Ghagra.
- Outcome:
- Forced Afghans to retreat; treaty allowed Babur nominal suzerainty over Bihar, leaving local chiefs in power.
- Treaty with Nusrat Shah prevented eastern conflict.
- Babur returned to Agra, consolidating his northern empire.
Conclusion of Babur’s Conquests
- Babur’s conquest of India was a combination of:
- Strategic use of artillery and innovative warfare.
- Exploitation of divided opposition (Ibrahim Lodi, Rana Sanga, Afghan chiefs).
- Diplomacy with local rulers like Daulat Khan Lodi.
- By 1529, Babur had established Mughal control over Punjab, Delhi, Agra, and surrounding regions, laying the foundation of the Mughal Empire in India.
- Babur died near Lahore, leaving the empire to his successors, who would expand it further.
Gujarat and the Portuguese
- Bahadur Shah (Gujarat) faced Mughal threat from Humayun.
- To counter it, granted Bassein to Portuguese and allowed fort at Diu.
- Established Portuguese foothold in Gujarat.
- Under Mahmud Begarha, Gujarat reached maximum power and administration efficiency, challenging even the Mughals.
Humayun’s Early Reign
- Succeeded Babur in 1530 at age 23.
- Inherited:
- Unstable administration
- Precarious finances
- Afghan resistance in east
- Timurid legacy of divided empire
- Kabul and Qandhar under brother Kamran; Kamran occupied Lahore & Multan, accepted Humayun’s suzerainty.
Afghan Threat
- Afghans growing in power under leaders like Sher Khan.
- 1532: Battle of Dadrah – Humayun defeated Afghans in Bihar & Jaunpur.
- Siege of Chunar Fort (4 months) – Sher Khan kept fort but pledged loyalty; son given as hostage.
Conflict with Bahadur Shah of Gujarat
- Bahadur Shah: ambitious ruler, age close to Humayun.
- Conquered Malwa, invaded Rajasthan (Chittor).
- Humayun helped via legends (Rani Karnavati’s rakhi story, possibly false).
- Humayun built Dinpanah in Delhi; organized feasts, showed prestige.
- Bahadur Shah allied with Tatar Khan; Humayun defeated Tatar Khan.
- Humayun invaded Malwa → Bahadur Shah fled to Mandu → Champaner → Ahmedabad → Kathiawar.
- Rich provinces and treasures captured, but both Gujarat & Malwa lost soondue to:
- Local attachment to Gujarat rulers
- Inexperienced brother Askari
- Internal uprisings
- Result: Bahadur Shah drowned with Portuguese, ending Mughal threat from Gujarat.
Sher Khan (Sher Shah Suri)
- Afghan leader, master of Bihar, loyal in appearance but planned to expel Mughals.
- Recruited 1200 elephants, defeated Bengal king.
- Humayun besieged Chunar again (6 months) but Sher Khan captured Rohtas fort, invaded Bengal.
- Battle of Chausa (1539) – Humayun defeated; 7,000 Mughal soldiers killed.
- Battle of Kanauj (1540) – Mughal defeat; Humayun became prince without kingdom.
- Humayun fled; took refuge in Iran; recaptured Qandhar & Kabul (1545).
Contributions of Sher Shah
- Restored law & order, suppressed rebels & rogue zamindars.
- Fostered trade & communications:
- Rebuilt Grand Trunk Road (Indus → Bengal)
- Roads connecting Agra → Jodhpur → Chittor → Gujarat ports.
- Efficient administration and revenue collection.
Humayun’s Later Years
- Offered shelter by Rana of Amarkot, where Akbar born (1542).
- Recovered empire with help from Safavid king Shah Tahmasp.
- Built Humayun’s Tomb, Delhi (double dome; precursor to Taj Mahal).
Akbar’s Early Reign
- Crowned 1556 at age 13.
- Afghan threat under Hemu:
- Hemu captured Delhi briefly.
- Bairam Khan rallied Mughals to counter Hemu.
- Conquered Gujarat; defeated Afghans in Bengal & Bihar.
- Integrated Rajputs via marriages and alliances.
- Maintained relations with Safavids & Uzbeks for strategic defense.
Mughal Administrative System
- Mansabdari system:
- <500: Mansabdar
- 500–2500: Amir
- 2500+: Amir-i-Umda / Umda-i-Azam
- Rank determined subordinate hierarchy; higher rank could have lower-ranked officers under them.
Art & Culture
- Patronage of painting revived under Akbar.
- Persian influence via Humayun’s exile in Iran.
- Daswant & Basawan – famous painters; both Hindus & Muslims contributed.
Reasons for Humayun’s Decline
1. Weak Administrative Consolidation
- Humayun inherited an unstable empire from Babur. The Mughal administration and finances were not fully consolidated.
- His brothers’ ambitions (Kamran, Askari, Hindal) created persistent internal threats, and Humayun struggled to maintain unity.
- Delegating regions like Punjab and Multan to Kamran temporarily solved frontier issues but created long-term distrust and rivalry among the Timurid princes.
2. Underestimation of Afghan Power
- Humayun consistently misjudged the strength and strategy of Afghan leaders, especially Sher Khan (later Sher Shah Suri).
- Sher Khan had strong local support, experienced troops, and superior military tactics.
- Humayun failed to win over local zamindars and rulers, which left him militarily isolated despite numerical strength.
3. Military Errors
- Humayun’s campaigns often lacked preparation and strategic foresight:
- Siege of Chunar: prolonged without decisive action.
- Bengal campaign: advanced without securing supply lines or local alliances.
- Battle of Chausa (1539) and Kanauj (1540): poor choice of ground and underestimation of Afghan mobility led to catastrophic defeats.
- Despite personal bravery, these strategic blunders led to major losses of men, treasure, and territory.
4. Overextension of Forces
- Humayun’s ambition to conquer Gujarat, Malwa, and Bengal simultaneously stretched his resources thin.
- His focus on building Dinpanah and other cities sometimes diverted attention from pressing military threats, particularly from Sher Shah.
5. Lack of Political Alliances
- Unlike Sher Shah, who secured loyalty from local chiefs and Afghan tribes, Humayun relied heavily on his Timurid nobles.
- The defections and rivalries among his brothers and generals weakened his position at critical moments.
6. External Pressures
- The rise of Sher Shah Suri and other Afghan chieftains created an environment where Humayun could not consolidate power.
- Local rulers like Bahadur Shah of Gujarat were strong and ambitious, requiring continuous attention and resources.
7. Personal Limitations (to some extent)
- Humayun was not as energetic or politically shrewd as Babur, though he was brave and cultured.
- Occasional indulgence in opium may have affected judgment, but historical sources suggest this was not an addiction.
✅ Result
- Humayun was defeated by Sher Shah, lost the empire, and became a wandering exile for 15 years before reclaiming the throne in 1555.
- His inability to understand local politics, Afghan military strength, and overextension of campaigns were the primary reasons for his decline.
Reference: AR History of Medieval India by Satish Chandra