The Dutch established factories across India, including in Bihar (Patna), as part of their trading network. They actively participated in the carrying trade, exporting saltpetre from Bihar, along with indigo, textiles, silk, opium, and rice from different regions. Bihar, especially Patna, became an important centre for saltpetre production, which was a key export item to the Far East.
Bihar was administratively part of the Bengal province under the Mughal Empire. When Murshid Quli Khan established an independent Bengal state, Bihar also came under his authority. Later, Alivardi Khan, who was initially the Deputy Governor of Bihar, seized power in 1740 (Battle of Gheria) and made Bengal independent of Mughal control while continuing tribute.
Bihar, as part of Bengal, contributed to its prosperity through exports like saltpetre, indigo, rice, silk, cotton textiles, and handicrafts. The English East India Company established factories in Patna, making Bihar a key centre of trade. Bengal (including Bihar) accounted for nearly 60% of British imports from Asia, highlighting Bihar’s economic importance.
Bihar was an important centre of higher learning. Tols/Chatuspathis functioned as centres for Sanskrit education in regions like Mithila (Tirhut). Azimabad (Patna) emerged as a major centre for Persian education, which was the court language. Madrasahs provided education in Persian and Arabic, essential for administration and religious studies.
Slavery existed in Bihar as part of the wider Indian system. Economic distress, famines, and poverty forced some people to sell their children. European companies intensified slave trade by purchasing slaves from Bengal, Assam, and Bihar and exporting them to European and American markets. Despite this, slaves in India were often treated as hereditary servants, and their social condition was relatively better than in Europe.
Mir Qasim, after becoming Nawab, shifted his capital from Murshidabad to Munger (Bihar) to maintain distance from the English at Calcutta. He reorganised administration and modernised the army. Bihar became central to his resistance against the British.
Tensions arose in Bihar when Ram Narayan, Deputy Governor of Bihar, refused to submit revenue accounts to Mir Kasim and was supported by English officials at Patna. The misuse of dastak (trade permits) by Company officials caused revenue loss and unfair competition. Mir Kasim abolished duties to ensure equality, but the British opposed it. This conflict led to war (1763) and eventually culminated in the Battle of Buxar (1764), where the British defeated the combined forces of Mir Kasim, Shuja-ud-Daula, and Shah Alam II.
After the Battle of Buxar, the Treaty of Allahabad (1765) was signed by Robert Clive with Shah Alam II and the Nawab of Awadh. The Mughal Emperor granted the Diwani rights (revenue collection) of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa to the East India Company. This marked the beginning of British political control over Bihar.
After 1765, Shah Alam II lived under the protection of the East India Company at Allahabad and later returned to Delhi under Maratha and then British protection. The Mughal emperors became pensioners of the British, symbolising the transfer of real power, including over Bihar, to the Company.
Bihar transitioned from being a prosperous economic region under Bengal to a strategic centre of British expansion, especially after the Battle of Buxar (1764) and the Treaty of Allahabad (1765). Its resources (like saltpetre), administrative importance (Patna, Munger), and political events made it crucial in early colonial consolidation.
After the Treaty of Allahabad (1765), the East India Company obtained the Diwani rights of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. For the exercise of Diwani functions, the Company appointed Raja Sitab Roy as Deputy Diwan of Bihar, while Mohammad Reza Khan was appointed for Bengal and also acted as Deputy Nazim. This marked the beginning of Company’s revenue administration in Bihar.
The Battle of Plassey (1757) laid the territorial foundation of British rule, while the Battle of Buxar (1764), fought in Bihar, laid the real foundation of English power. This was followed by the Treaty of Allahabad (1765), granting Diwani rights. The system of Dual Government (1765–72) further consolidated Company control over Bihar.
The Sanyasi Revolt (1763–1800) occurred in Bihar and Bengal, led by figures like Manju Shah, Musa Shah, Bhawani Pathak and Debi Chaudhurani. It was an early resistance against British authority and economic exploitation.
The Wahabi Movement (1830–61) spread across Bihar, Bengal and other regions. It was an Islamist revivalist movement led by Syed Ahmed of Rai Bareilly and reflected resistance against British influence.
The Santhal Rebellion (1855–56) took place in the Rajmahal Hills of Bihar. It was led by Sidhu and Kanhu against oppressive practices of zamindars and moneylenders, supported by police. The movement turned into an anti-British struggle, with Santhals declaring autonomy over the region between Bhagalpur and Rajmahal. It was eventually suppressed by 1856.
The Revolt of 1857 spread to Bihar as part of the larger uprising that began at Meerut. In Bihar, it was led by Kunwar Singh, the zamindar of Jagdishpur. Despite being in his seventies, he led the rebellion after sepoys from Danapur reached Arrah. Bihar became one of the major centres of revolt against British authority.
The Kharwar Rebellion (1870s) in Bihar was directed against revenue settlement activities imposed by the British, reflecting agrarian discontent.
The Jharkhand Uprising (1920 onwards) involved tribals of the Chotanagpur region (then part of Bihar). The formation of Adivasi Mahasabha (1937) and later the Regional Jharkhand Party (1949) reflected organised tribal assertion.
The British plan of Partition of Bengal (1903 decision) proposed Bengal (including Bihar and Orissa) as one province and Eastern Bengal & Assam as another. Bihar was thus part of the administrative restructuring aimed at weakening the nationalist movement through linguistic and religious division.
Bihar played a crucial role in early British expansion (1764 Buxar, 1765 Diwani), witnessed multiple resistance movements (Sanyasi, Santhal, Wahabi, 1857 revolt), and remained a significant region in colonial administrative and political restructuring.
The Annulment of Partition (1911) was carried out to curb revolutionary terrorism. As part of the reorganisation, Bihar and Orissa were separated from Bengal, marking a major administrative milestone for Bihar. The decision also involved shifting the capital to Delhi. This restructuring altered the political landscape of eastern India and gave Bihar a distinct administrative identity.
Revolutionary organisations like the Anushilan Samiti and Jugantar expanded their network into Bihar. Under leaders like Jatindranath Mukherjee, connections were strengthened between Bengal and regions including Bihar and Orissa. The Delhi Conspiracy case led to executions of Basant Kumar Biswas, Amir Chand and Avadh Behari, while Rash Behari Bose escaped arrest. These developments show Bihar’s indirect linkage with revolutionary nationalism.
The Champaran Satyagraha (1917) marked the first experiment of civil disobedience in India. Initiated on the request of Rajkumar Shukla, it addressed the exploitation of peasants under the tinkathia system. Mahatma Gandhi defied official orders and conducted an enquiry with leaders like Rajendra Prasad, Mazharul Haque, Mahadeo Desai, Narhari Parekh and J.B. Kripalani. The result was abolition of the tinkathia system and partial compensation (25%) to peasants. Within a decade, indigo planters left the region. Other Bihar leaders included Brajkishore Prasad, Anugrah Narayan Sinha, Ramnavmi Prasad and Shambhusharan Varma.
During the Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–22), Bihar played an active role. Institutions like Bihar Vidyapeeth were established as part of the national education movement. Leaders such as Rajendra Prasad supported the movement. Peasants participated massively, and in Bihar, social tensions (such as lower vs upper caste conflicts) merged with the movement. The movement also saw boycotts, picketing, and mobilisation of masses.
Peasant participation in Bihar during the Non-Cooperation phase was intense. The movement allowed peasants to express grievances not only against British rule but also against landlords and traders. Simultaneously, communities like Yadavs in Bihar mobilised for improvement in social status, showing the merging of social reform with political struggle.
Revolutionary activity in Bihar took organised form through groups like the Hindustan Republican Association (HRA), which operated in Punjab–UP–Bihar regions. These groups represented dissatisfaction with non-violent methods and aimed at militant struggle against British rule.
The broader nationalist movement saw the creation of national institutions like Bihar Vidyapeeth. Leaders like Rajendra Prasad in Bihar provided strong support to Gandhian methods, making Bihar a key centre of mass mobilisation during the freedom struggle.
Bihar emerged as a major centre of Gandhian experimentation (1917), mass peasant mobilisation (1920s), and revolutionary linkages (early 20th century). From administrative separation in 1911 to active participation in national movements, Bihar played a crucial role in shaping India’s freedom struggle.
Revolutionary activity in the Punjab–United Provinces–Bihar region was dominated by the Hindustan Republican Association (HRA) (October 1924), later renamed HSRA. It was founded at Kanpur by Ramprasad Bismil, Jogesh Chandra Chatterjee and Sachin Sanyal with the objective of organising an armed revolution to overthrow colonial rule and establish a federal republic based on adult franchise. Bihar formed an important part of this revolutionary network.
During the Civil Disobedience Movement (1930), Bihar saw early participation as Champaran and Saran became the first districts to start the Salt Satyagraha (1930). Due to geographical limitations, salt production remained symbolic. In Patna, Nakhas Pond was selected for breaking the salt law under Ambika Kant Sinha. Soon, the movement shifted to a stronger form as the No-Chaukidari Tax Agitation (1930) replaced the salt satyagraha. By November 1930, sale of foreign cloth and liquor declined sharply and administrative collapse was observed in regions like Barhee (Munger).
In the tribal belt of Chhotanagpur (then Bihar), lower-class militancy emerged during the 1930s. Leaders like Bonga Majhi and Somra Majhi, influenced by Gandhism, led movements in Hazaribagh combining socio-religious reform with mobilisation.
During the Civil Disobedience phase, peasants were highly active in Bihar. Muslim participation declined compared to 1920–22, though Muslim weaving communities in Bihar were effectively mobilised. The movement saw wide participation of peasants, workers and lower sections, indicating deep social penetration.
The national movement expanded with multiple protest forms, including the No-Chaukidari Tax Campaign in Bihar (1930s). Bihar became one of the active centres of such resistance alongside other regional movements across India.
Under the Government of India Act (1935), a federal structure and provincial autonomy were proposed. Subsequently, provincial elections were held in February 1937, including Bihar. Congress ministries were formed in Bihar along with several other provinces, marking a new phase of limited self-governance.
After the formation of Congress ministries in 1937, Bihar saw attempts at agrarian reforms. However, constraints such as lack of financial resources, limited powers, dominance of landlords in legislative councils, and complex agrarian structures restricted radical reforms. Some laws relating to debt relief, rent arrears and land tenures were passed, but benefits largely reached occupancy tenants, while sub-tenants and labourers remained excluded.
During the later phase of the freedom struggle, especially in the 1940s, Bihar witnessed intense public action. People attacked symbols of colonial authority, hoisted national flags, disrupted communication lines and infrastructure, and participated in strikes and protests. Students engaged in strikes, processions and underground communication networks.
In the 1940s phase, underground revolutionary activities spread to Bihar. Leaders like Jayaprakash Narayan, Rammanohar Lohia, Aruna Asaf Ali, Usha Mehta and others led clandestine resistance efforts. These activities aimed to sustain morale, maintain coordination and continue resistance against British rule.
From HRA (October 1924) revolutionary activity to Civil Disobedience (1930), No-Chaukidari agitation (1930), Provincial elections (February 1937) and underground movements (1940s), Bihar remained a crucial centre of revolutionary, peasant and mass nationalist mobilisation.
After the Battle of Buxar (1764), the East India Company obtained the Diwani rights of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. Under the Diwani Grant (1765), an annual subsidy was to be paid to Shah Alam II and pension to Shuja-ud-Daula. The Company appointed Raja Sitab Rai as Deputy Diwan of Bihar. The Dual Government (1765–1772) created a system where the Company had authority without responsibility, leading to corruption, excessive revenue extraction and peasant oppression. In 1767, the British government demanded a 10% share in revenue. Administrative reforms followed: in 1770, offices of faujdar and amil were abolished; in 1774, they were restored by Warren Hastings; and in 1775, faujdar thanas were established for law and order in Bihar and Bengal.
The condition of vernacular education in Bihar was examined in William Adam’s Reports (1835, 1836, 1838), which highlighted systemic defects. Reforms followed: 1843–53 (James Jonathan’s experiments) introduced model schools; 1853 (Dalhousie’s minute) supported vernacular education; and Wood’s Despatch (1854) emphasised improvement, supervision and teacher training. Further developments included the Hunter Commission (1882) advocating mass education, Education Policy (1904) strengthening vernacular education, Hartog Committee (1929) highlighting weaknesses, and encouragement under Congress Ministries (1937). Bihar also saw the establishment of the Agriculture Institute at Pusa.
After the Revolt of 1857, British policy classified soldiers from regions like Bihar as “non-martial races” (late 1880s policy under Lord Roberts, 1887–1892). Recruitment policies favoured Sikhs, Gurkhas and Pathans. The British followed a divide-and-rule strategy by mixing caste and regional groups in regiments and isolating soldiers from nationalist ideas.
Revolutionary activity in Punjab–UP–Bihar was dominated by the Hindustan Republican Association (HRA) (October 1924), founded at Kanpur by Ramprasad Bismil, Jogesh Chandra Chatterjee and Sachin Sanyal. It aimed to overthrow colonial rule through armed revolution and establish a federal republic based on adult franchise. Bihar formed an important operational region of this network.
During the Civil Disobedience Movement (1930), Bihar saw early mobilisation as Champaran and Saran initiated the Salt Satyagraha (1930). Due to geographical constraints, salt production remained symbolic. In Patna, Nakhas Pond was used under Ambika Kant Sinha. Soon, the No-Chaukidari Tax Campaign (1930) became the dominant form of protest. By November 1930, foreign cloth and liquor sales declined sharply, and administrative breakdown occurred in areas like Barhee (Munger).
Peasants, workers and lower classes formed the backbone of the movement in Bihar during the 1930s. Muslim participation declined compared to 1920–22, but Muslim weaving communities in Bihar were mobilised. Tribal mobilisation occurred in Chhotanagpur under leaders like Bonga Majhi and Somra Majhi.
The Government of India Act (1935) proposed federal structure, provincial autonomy and legislative division of powers. Elections were held in February 1937, including Bihar. Congress ministries were formed in Bihar and other provinces, marking a shift towards limited self-governance.
After 1937, Congress ministries in Bihar attempted agrarian reforms such as laws on debt relief, rent arrears, land tenures and grazing fees. However, constraints like lack of power, financial limitations, dominance of landlords, and complex agrarian structures limited their impact. Benefits largely reached occupancy tenants, while sub-tenants and labourers remained excluded.
During the Quit India Movement (1942), Bihar became a major centre of unrest. Public actions included attacks on symbols of authority, destruction of infrastructure, and hoisting national flags. Students organised strikes and underground networks. Underground leaders like Jayaprakash Narayan played key roles. The movement saw underground activity (1942–43) to maintain coordination. Mahatma Gandhi undertook a fast in February 1943, and Pakistan Day was observed on March 23, 1943.
From August 16, 1946, large-scale communal riots affected regions including Bihar. In elections, Congress secured majorities in provinces including Bihar, while the Muslim League gained strength in other regions. Bihar remained a significant political arena during this transitional phase.
Bihar evolved from a centre of early British revenue control (1764–1772) to a region of educational reforms (1835 onwards), revolutionary activity (1924), mass movements (1930), and intense resistance during Quit India (1942–43), playing a continuous and critical role in India’s political and freedom struggle trajectory.
During the phase (1740–1765), the East India Company gradually asserted political power. Beginning with Anglo-French rivalry (1751) and the capture of Arcot (1751), the Company strengthened its position after the Battle of Plassey (1757). Finally, with the acquisition of Diwani rights in 1765, the Company became a major political power over Bengal, Bihar and Orissa, marking the beginning of colonial dominance in Bihar.
In Bihar, Swami Sahajanand Saraswati led the peasant movement along with Karyanand Sharma, Yadunandan Sharma, Rahul Sankritayan, Panchanan Sharma and Jamun Karjiti. In 1935, the Provincial Kisan Conference adopted the anti-zamindari slogan (1935). However, the Provincial Kisan Sabha developed a rift with the Congress over the bakasht land issue (1935 onwards) due to an unfavourable government resolution. As a result, the movement declined and died out by August 1939.
Before Partition, in October 1946, Bihar witnessed communal violence where Hindu peasants, allegedly instigated by landlords, attacked Muslims. This was followed by violence in other regions like Garhmukteswar. However, after Partition, due to the initiatives of Mahatma Gandhi, no further massacres occurred in these regions.
After elections (as per Sukumar Sen’s report), issues emerged regarding women voters not disclosing their names. As a result, 2–3 million women out of nearly 80 million could not be registered, especially from states including Bihar. This highlighted socio-cultural constraints in electoral participation.
In the 1962 elections, a political party emerged as the main opposition in states including Bihar. Later, after internal splits and leadership changes in 1967, many leaders joined the Bharatiya Lok Dal in 1974. Regional parties like the Jharkhand Party (in undivided Bihar) gained prominence, reflecting regional aspirations.
The movement in Bihar began as student protests and was later led by Jayaprakash Narayan. It was part of a broader phase of unrest seen alongside the Nav Nirman Movement in Gujarat (December 1973–March 1974). JP called for “Total Revolution” (1974) against corruption and demanded resignation of the Bihar government. People were urged to gherao institutions and refuse taxes. The movement spread across North India but lost momentum by the end of 1974.
Bihar’s trajectory shows a shift from colonial political control (1740–1765) to agrarian struggles (1935–1939), communal tensions (1946), democratic challenges (post-independence elections) and finally mass political mobilisation during the JP Movement (1973–1974), reflecting its continuous centrality in India’s socio-political evolution.
The elections of 1967 and 1971 reflected major changes in voter behaviour. Electoral malpractices such as booth capturing and rigging became widespread. The Election Commission observed that casteism (especially in Bihar) had become a dominant factor and was seriously vitiating the political atmosphere, making caste-based voting an entrenched feature.
Following political dissatisfaction, state assemblies were dissolved and fresh elections were held in June 1977. As a result, the Janata Party formed government in Bihar (1977) along with several other states. This marked a shift from Congress dominance to opposition-led governance in Bihar.
In May 1977, the Belchi incident (Bihar) saw a group of Harijans burnt to death by upper-caste mobs, allegedly over land disputes. This reflected growing caste tensions due to rising assertion of backward classes and resistance by oppressed groups. Indira Gandhi visited Belchi (partly on elephant due to lack of access), projecting herself as a supporter of the poor and marginalised, which helped rebuild her political image.
The growing political assertion of backward classes led to the appointment of the Mandal Commission (January 1979) under B. P. Mandal, a former Chief Minister of Bihar. Its objective was to examine reservation for OBCs in central services. Bihar became a major centre of OBC political mobilisation.
During this period, there was a movement for separate Jharkhand state (1970s onwards) in the tribal region of Chotanagpur (then part of Bihar). This reflected regional identity assertion and demand for autonomy within the Indian Union.
The implementation of Mandal politics and rise of OBC assertion led to emergence of leaders like Lalu Prasad Yadav from Bihar, who became significant figures in national politics by mobilising caste-based support.
The decision by V. P. Singh to implement Mandal Commission recommendations (late 1980s) aimed to consolidate OBC support. Bihar, with strong OBC presence, became central to this political shift.
The Ram Rath Yatra (September 1990) led by L. K. Advani began from Somnath and passed through Bihar. The then Chief Minister Lalu Prasad Yadav arrested Advani in Bihar (1990) to prevent communal tension, playing a decisive role in national politics.
The Babri Masjid issue culminated in 1992, where a commission later indicted several leaders. Though not Bihar-specific, the political developments had national implications in which Bihar-based leadership played a role in earlier stages (1990 Rath Yatra).
From caste-based politics (1967–71) to Janata rule (1977), Belchi caste violence (May 1977), Mandal politics (January 1979), and Rath Yatra intervention (September 1990), Bihar emerged as a core centre of caste politics, social justice movements, and national political turning points in post-independence India.
The Bakasht Movement (1936; Bihar) emerged as an important agrarian struggle. It reflected peasant resistance against zamindari practices, especially regarding land rights. Leaders like Jadunandan Sharma were active in mobilising peasants in districts like Gaya, strengthening the Kisan Sabha movement in Bihar.
In May 1996, Atal Bihari Vajpayee became Prime Minister as leader of the BJP, replacing P.V. Narasimha Rao. However, due to lack of majority, he resigned within 13 days (May 1996). This marked a phase of political instability at the Centre, indirectly affecting states like Bihar.
In July 1997, a major political development occurred in Bihar when corruption charges (fodder scam) were pursued against Lalu Prasad Yadav. Refusing to resign, he split from his party and formed the Rashtriya Janata Dal (July 1997). This marked a significant shift in Bihar’s political landscape.
The United Front government under I.K. Gujral collapsed when the Congress withdrew support on November 28, 1997, following controversy over the Jain Commission report. Though a national event, it influenced coalition politics in states like Bihar.
The NDA government (March 1998) led by Atal Bihari Vajpayee came to power again. However, it fell after losing a no-confidence motion on April 17, 1999, leading to fresh elections. Vajpayee continued as caretaker Prime Minister.
India conducted Pokhran-II Nuclear Tests (May 1998) under Vajpayee’s leadership, declaring itself a nuclear power. May 11 is observed as National Technology Day. Though not Bihar-specific, this event shaped national politics affecting all states including Bihar.
After elections in September–October 1999, the NDA returned to power and Vajpayee was sworn in as Prime Minister on October 13, 1999. This period saw relatively stable governance at the Centre.
In the April–May 2009 elections, the Congress-led UPA returned to power. Manmohan Singh was sworn in again on May 22, 2009, becoming the first PM since Nehru (1962) to be re-elected after a full term. These developments influenced Bihar’s political alignments at the national level.
From the Bakasht Movement (1936) to RJD formation (July 1997) and evolving coalition politics (1996–2009), Bihar remained a key arena of agrarian struggle, caste-based mobilisation, and coalition-era political transformation in India.