📘 CHOLA DYNASTY – STRUCTURED UPSC NOTES (PART 1)

I. SOURCES FOR CHOLA HISTORY

1️⃣ Literary Sources

▪ Kalinkattupparani (11th century)

• Author: Cheyankontar
• Based on war between Kulottunga I and Anantavarman Chodaganga of Kalinga
• Glorifies heroism of Chola king and commander
• Portrays war as divine conflict between good and evil

2️⃣ Epigraphic Evidence

• Late 6th century CE: Early Telugu Chola inscriptions → beginning of Telugu as inscriptional language
• Numerous private donative records in Telugu
• 12th century trilingual inscription at Kurgod (Bellary district, Karnataka):
  • Sanskrit
  • Prakrit
  • Kannada

3️⃣ Coins & Symbols

▪ Emblem

• Tiger crest → Chola symbol

▪ Copper Plate Seals Show:

• Tiger (Chola)
• Fish (Pandya)
• Bow (Chera)
  → Indicates Chola supremacy

▪ Coinage

• Gold, silver, copper coins
• Found at Kavilayadavalli (Nellore district, Andhra Pradesh)
• Motifs: Tiger, Bow
• Tamil legend: “Sung” (short for Sungandavirttarulina – abolisher of tolls, title of Kulottunga I)
• Reverse legends: Possibly Kanchi or Nellur (mint towns)
• Final phase dominated by copper coins

II. POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY OF EARLY CHOLAS

• Part of Tamilakam (Tirupati hills to southern tip)
• Located in fertile lower Kaveri valley
• Modern districts:
  • Tanjore
  • Tiruchirappalli
• Capital: Uraiyur
• Major Port: Puhar (Kaveripumpattinam)

III. POLITICAL STRUCTURE (SANGAM PHASE)

▪ Kings

• Called Vendar (Crowned Kings)
• Insignia:
  • Staff
  • Drum
  • Umbrella
• Emblem: Tiger

▪ Chieftains

• Known as Velir

▪ Features

• Internecine conflicts
• Alliances
• Tribute relations
• Rudimentary state structure

IV. ASHOKAN REFERENCE

Mentioned in:

• Rock Edict 2
• Rock Edict 13

→ Independent southern polity outside Mauryan control

V. TRADE & ECONOMY (EARLY CHOLAS)

• Participation in maritime trade
• Roman gold coins flowed into peninsula
• Local imitations of Roman coins
• Dynastic coinage with legends & portraits
• Gold, silver, copper currency

VI. IMPORTANT EARLY CHOLA RULERS

1️⃣ Karikala Chola

▪ Early Life

• Deposed & imprisoned
• Escaped and re-established rule

▪ Military Achievements

• Battle of Venni → Defeated Pandya–Chera confederacy
• 11 rulers lost royal drums
• Chera king committed ritual suicide
• Victory at Vahaipparandalai
• Several chiefs lost umbrellas

2️⃣ Tondaiman Ilandiraiyan

• Ruled from Kanchi
• Possibly independent or subordinate to Karikala
• Poet
• Emphasized king’s personal character

3️⃣ Later Conflict

• Succession struggle between Nalangilli & Nedungilli
• Indicates instability

VII. URBAN CENTRE – URAIYUR

• Identified with Tiruchirapalli
• Fortified city
• Famous for textiles

Archaeology

Period I

• Black & Red Ware
• Russet-coated ware
• Rouletted ware
• Arretine ware
• Brahmi inscriptions (1st–2nd century CE)

Period II

• Red-slipped ware
• Dyeing vat

Period III

• Early medieval phase

VIII. PORT CITY – KAVERIPPUMPATTINAM (PUHAR)

• Also known as Khaberis / Camara
• Located at mouth of Kaveri (Bay of Bengal)
• Two markets
• Multilingual population
• Guarded by officers

Archaeology

• Occupation: 3rd century BCE – 12th century CE
• From dockyard village → major port

Nearby Sites

• Vanagiri → irrigation channel
• Kilayur → boat landing
• Pallavanesvaram → Buddhist monastery
• Numerous Chola coins

IX. CULTURAL CONNECTIONS

• Familiarity with Mahabharata & Ramayana
• Kings claimed feeding epic armies
• Sanskritic–Tamil interaction
• Spread of Buddhism, Jainism, Shaivism, Vaishnavism

X. AGASTYA TRADITION

• Mentioned in Manimekalai
• Connected with two Chola kings
• Agattiyam grammar attributed to him
• Linked to Sangams

XI. EARLY MEDIEVAL POLITICAL STRUCTURE

Nature of Kingdoms

• Fluid boundaries
• Identified by core regions

Two Types

1. Large powers (Cholas, Rashtrakutas, Palas, Pratiharas)
2. Short-lived regional kingdoms

Political Interactions

• Warfare
• Matrimonial alliances
• Refuge to rulers
• Succession manipulation

XII. EASTERN CHALUKYAS OF VENGI

• Vijayaditya III → Multiple victories
• Bhima I → Captured by Rashtrakutas
• Frequent succession disputes
• Conquered in 999 CE by Rajaraja I

XIII. RASHTRAKUTAS

• Origin: Kannada region
• Title: Lattalura-puraveshvara (Latur)
• Defeated Pratiharas, Palas, Cholas
• Could not retain north permanently

XIV. PALLAVAS

• Region: Tondaimandalam
• Early king: Shivaskandavarman
• Simhavishnu → Ended Kalabhra rule

Mahendravarman I

• Patron of arts
• Conflict with Pulakeshin II

Narasimhavarman I

• Captured Badami
• Built Mamallapuram

End

• Aparajita defeated by Aditya I (893 CE)

XV. PANDYAS

• Revival under Kadungon
• Rajasimha I → Pallava-bhanjana
• Subdued by Cholas in 10th century

XVI. ORIGIN OF MEDIEVAL CHOLAS

Founder: Vijayalaya

• Captured Tanjore
• Expanded in Kaveri valley
• Accepted Pallava overlordship

XVII. EXPANSION PHASE

Aditya I

• Defeated Pandyas
• Killed Aparajita
• Gained Tondaimandalam
• Matrimonial alliance

Parantaka I

• Conquered Madurai
• Battle of Vellur
• Defeated at Takkolam (949 CE)

Recovery

Sundara Chola

• Defeated Pandya–Sri Lanka alliance

Uttama Chola

• Recovered Tondaimandalam

XVIII. ZENITH OF CHOLA POWER

Rajaraja I (985–1014 CE)

• Broke Pandya–Kerala–Sri Lanka confederacy
• Destroyed Anuradhapura
• Conquered Maldives
• Land survey
• Valanadu reorganization

Rajendra I

• Defeated Mahinda V
• Expedition to Srivijaya (1025 CE)
• Built Gangaikondacholapuram

XIX. LATER CHOLAS

Kulottunga I

• Embassy to China
• Title: Shungam-tavirtta
• Trade flourished

Decline

• Continuous warfare
• Rise of Pandyas & Hoysalas
• End in 13th century

XX. IDEOLOGY OF KINGSHIP

▪ Divine Kingship

• King seen as representative of Shiva/Vishnu
• Royal titles: Parakesari, Rajakesari
• Grand coronation rituals

▪ Temple-Centric Legitimacy

• Massive temple building to assert authority
• Royal portraits inside temples
• Donations recorded through inscriptions

▪ Military Glory

• Kings glorified in meikeerthi (prashasti-like introductions in inscriptions)
• Expansion seen as dharmic conquest

XXI. CENTRAL ADMINISTRATION

▪ Nature of State

• Highly organized but decentralized
• Extensive inscriptional evidence

▪ Key Officials

• Perundanam – High officials
• Sirudanam – Lower officials
• Olai Nayagam – Record keeper
• Senapati – Military commander

▪ Revenue Department

• Land survey under Rajaraja I
• Detailed classification of land

XXII. PROVINCIAL ADMINISTRATION

Empire divided into:1️⃣ Mandalam (Province)

2️⃣ Valanadu

3️⃣ Nadu

4️⃣ Kurram

5️⃣ Village

Important Mandalams

• Cholamandalam
• Tondaimandalam
• Pandyamandalam

Governors often royal princes.

XXIII. LOCAL SELF-GOVERNMENT (MOST IMPORTANT FOR UPSC)

1️⃣ Ur

• Assembly of common villages

2️⃣ Sabha / Mahasabha

• Brahmadeya villages (Brahmin settlements)
• Most autonomous body

3️⃣ Nagaram

• Merchant towns

✨ Uttaramerur Inscription (Parantaka I)

Gives details of:

• Kudavolai system (lottery method of selection)
• Eligibility:
  • Own land
  • Age 35–70
  • Knowledge of Vedas
• Disqualification:
  • Criminals
  • Tax defaulters
  • Corrupt officials

➡ Often cited as example of grassroots democracy.

XXIV. REVENUE SYSTEM

▪ Main Revenue: Land Tax (Vari)

• 1/6th to 1/4th of produce

▪ Other Taxes

• Profession tax
• Customs duty
• Water tax
• House tax

▪ Land Categories

• Wet land (Nansey)
• Dry land (Punsey)
• Garden land

Extensive irrigation network supported agriculture.

XXV. IRRIGATION SYSTEM

• Tanks (Eri)
• Canals from Kaveri
• Anicuts (Dams)

Example:

• Grand Anicut (Kallanai) originally attributed to Karikala, renovated later

Village assemblies maintained irrigation works.

XXVI. MILITARY ORGANIZATION

▪ Standing Army

• Infantry
• Cavalry
• Elephants

▪ Navy (Very Important)

• Used in:
  • Sri Lanka campaigns
  • Maldives
  • Srivijaya expedition

One of the strongest naval powers in Indian history.

XXVII. ECONOMY

▪ Agriculture

• Rice dominant crop
• Advanced irrigation

▪ Textile Industry

• Uraiyur famous for cotton
• Silk weaving

▪ Trade

• Internal & overseas trade
• Ports:
  • Nagapattinam
  • Kaveripattinam

Merchant Guilds

• Ainnurruvar (500 Swamis)
• Manigramam
• Nanadesi

Operated across:

• Southeast Asia
• Sri Lanka

XXVIII. TEMPLE ECONOMY

Temples functioned as:

• Landowners
• Employers
• Banks
• Cultural centers

Temple inscriptions record:

• Land grants
• Donations
• Salaries

Example:

• Brihadeeswara Temple had hundreds of devadasis & employees.

XXIX. SOCIETY

▪ Varna System Present but Flexible

• Brahmins (Brahmadeya grants)
• Vellalas (landowners)
• Artisans
• Devadasis

▪ Women

• Participated in temple services
• Property rights existed

XXX. RELIGION

▪ Shaivism Dominant

• Nayanars

▪ Vaishnavism

• Alvars

▪ Bhakti Movement

• Emotional devotion
• Vernacular Tamil hymns

Important Works

• Tevaram
• Divya Prabandham

XXXI. ART & ARCHITECTURE

Dravidian Style (Mature Phase)

Features:

• Vimana (tower above sanctum)
• Mandapa
• Gopuram (later period prominent)

Major Temples

1️⃣ Brihadeeswara Temple (Rajaraja I)

• Located at Thanjavur
• Massive granite structure
• Tallest vimana of its time

2️⃣ Gangaikondacholapuram (Rajendra I)

• More refined style
• Sculptural excellence

XXXII. CHOLA BRONZES

Technique

• Lost-wax (Cire Perdue) method

Nataraja Icon

• Cosmic dance (Ananda Tandava)
• Symbolism:
  • Fire = destruction
  • Drum = creation
  • Dwarf Apasmara = ignorance
  • Circle = cosmos

Evolution

• Pallava bronzes: Compact, elliptical prabhamandala
• Chola bronzes: Dynamic, circular rim, flared locks

Golden age of metal sculpture.

XXXIII. LITERATURE

• Tamil Bhakti poetry flourished
• Court literature in Sanskrit & Tamil
• Kalinkattupparani

XXXIV. FOREIGN RELATIONS

• Embassy to China
• Contacts with Srivijaya
• Maritime dominance in Bay of Bengal

XXXV. DECLINE

Reasons:

• Continuous warfare
• Rise of Pandyas
• Hoysala intervention
• Weak successors

Ended in 13th century.

XXXVI. HISTORIOGRAPHY DEBATE (VERY IMPORTANT FOR MAINS)

1️⃣ Traditional View

• Cholas = Highly centralized empire
• Strong bureaucracy
• Efficient revenue & military system
• Powerful monarch with direct control

Supported by:

• Large number of inscriptions
• Detailed tax records
• Organized territorial divisions

2️⃣ Burton Stein’s “Segmentary State” Theory

Historian: Burton Stein

Main Arguments:

• Chola state was not fully centralized
• Real power lay at local level (Nadu)
• King’s authority was ritual, not administrative
• Peripheral areas loosely integrated
• Temples acted as integrative institutions

Key Concept:

• Ritual sovereignty at the center
• Political autonomy at local level

3️⃣ Criticism of Segmentary Theory

Scholars argue:

• Land surveys show strong fiscal control
• Military expeditions indicate central power
• Appointment of princes as governors
• Extensive temple endowments under royal control

👉 Current view: Chola state had both centralized and segmentary features.

XXXVII. AGRARIAN STRUCTURE

1️⃣ Brahmadeya Villages

• Tax-free land grants to Brahmins
• Centers of Sanskrit learning
• Promoted agrarian expansion

2️⃣ Vellanvagai

• Non-Brahmin peasant villages

3️⃣ Devadana

• Land granted to temples

Agrarian Expansion

• Clearing of forests
• Tank irrigation
• New settlements
• Deltaic intensification

Kaveri delta became one of the most fertile agrarian zones.

XXXVIII. NADU SYSTEM

Nadu

• Cluster of villages
• Key administrative & revenue unit

Functions:

• Tax collection
• Judicial settlement
• Irrigation management

Often more powerful than mandalam level.

XXXIX. SOCIAL STRUCTURE

1️⃣ Caste Structure

• Increasing stratification
• Brahmin dominance in Brahmadeya areas
• Vellalas as major landholders

2️⃣ Right-Hand & Left-Hand Castes

• Occupational grouping
• Urban conflicts recorded

3️⃣ Slavery

• Evidence of bonded labor
• Temple slaves mentioned in inscriptions

XL. WOMEN IN CHOLA PERIOD

• Royal women issued grants
• Example: Sembiyan Mahadevi (temple patron)
• Devadasi system institutionalized
• Women had property rights in some cases

XLI. TEMPLE AS INSTITUTION

Temple = Economic + Political + Cultural Hub

Functions:

• Landowner
• Employer
• Banker
• Redistribution center

Temples maintained:

• Dancers
• Musicians
• Accountants
• Watchmen

XLII. CHOLA NAVAL EXPANSION – STRATEGIC ANALYSIS

Why Naval Campaign to Srivijaya (1025 CE)?

Possible Reasons:

• Control of maritime trade routes
• Access to Southeast Asian markets
• Protection of merchant guild interests
• Political prestige

Result:

• Temporary assertion of dominance
• Strengthened Bay of Bengal trade network

XLIII. ARTISTIC SYMBOLISM – NATARAJA (MAINS ANGLE)

Nataraja = Philosophical representation of Shaivism

Symbolism:

• Circle of fire → Cycle of creation & destruction
• Damru → Sound of creation
• Agni → Dissolution
• Abhaya mudra → Protection
• Apasmara → Ignorance

Represents:

• Unity of art, philosophy, religion

XLIV. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS

XLV. DECLINE – STRUCTURAL REASONS

1. Over-expansion
2. Succession disputes
3. Rise of Pandyas
4. Hoysala intervention
5. Weak later rulers
6. Shift in trade routes

By late 13th century → absorbed into Pandyan polity.

XLVIII. CHOLA TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE – ADVANCED ANALYSIS

Chola architecture represents the culmination of the Dravidian style.

1️⃣ Architectural Components

• Garbhagriha (sanctum)
• Vimana (tower above sanctum)
• Mandapa (pillared hall)
• Prakara (enclosure walls)
• Gopuram (gateway tower – prominent in later phase)

2️⃣ Early vs Later Chola Temples

Early Phase (9th–10th Century)

• Smaller structures
• Modest vimana
• Less ornamentation

Imperial Phase (Rajaraja & Rajendra)

• Monumental scale
• Massive granite construction
• Highly detailed sculpture

3️⃣ Brihadeeswara Temple (Thanjavur)

Built by Rajaraja I (1010 CE)Features:

• 216 feet tall vimana
• Monolithic Nandi
• Extensive inscriptions
• Temple as administrative archive

Significance:

• Political propaganda
• Royal authority in stone
• Temple as state symbol

4️⃣ Gangaikondacholapuram

Built by Rajendra IFeatures:

• Softer sculptural style
• More graceful proportions
• Capital city temple

Symbol:

• Commemorated Ganga expedition

XLIX. ICONOGRAPHY & SCULPTURE

1️⃣ Stone Sculpture

• Dynamic poses
• Refined anatomy
• Devotional expression

2️⃣ Bronze Sculpture (Golden Age)

Technique:

• Lost-wax method (Cire Perdue)

Process:

1. Wax model
2. Clay mould
3. Molten metal poured
4. Breaking mould → unique piece

3️⃣ Evolution of Nataraja Image

Pallava Phase:

• Limbs close-set
• Elliptical prabhamandala
• Wood-inspired rigidity

Chola Phase:

• Flared locks
• Circular halo
• Dynamic movement
• Greater tensile confidence in metal

Philosophical meaning:

• Cosmic rhythm
• Shaiva metaphysics
• Art + theology synthesis

L. PAINTING TRADITION

• Chola murals in Brihadeeswara Temple
• Depict:
  • Royal processions
  • Devotional themes
  • Shaiva narratives

Later repainted during Nayaka period.

LI. MUSIC & DANCE

Devadasi System

• Temple dancers
• Ritual performances

Bharatanatyam Roots

• Temple-based dance traditions

Musical Instruments

• Veena
• Mridangam
• Conch
• Drums

Temple inscriptions mention salaried musicians.

LII. EDUCATION & LEARNING

1️⃣ Vedic Schools

• Located in Brahmadeya villages
• Funded through land grants

2️⃣ Agraharas

• Brahmin settlements
• Centers of Sanskrit learning

3️⃣ Tamil Bhakti Literature

• Promoted vernacularization

LIII. RELIGIOUS SYNTHESIS

Shaivism

Dominant religion

Patronage to Nayanars

Vaishnavism

Alvar saints

Temple construction

Buddhism & Jainism

Present but decliningReligious tolerance visible through grants.

LIV. MARITIME NETWORK & GLOBAL LINKAGES

Trade Routes Connected:

• Sri Lanka
• Maldives
• Southeast Asia
• China

Exports:

• Textiles
• Spices
• Precious stones
• Elephants

Imports:

• Horses
• Luxury goods
• Gold

Merchant guilds operated internationally.

LV. ECONOMIC STRUCTURE – ADVANCED VIEW

Temple-Centered Redistribution

• Surplus reinvested
• Employment generation
• Cultural patronage

Monetization

• Gold & copper coinage
• Trade-driven economy

Urbanization

• Growth of Nagaram (merchant towns)

LVI. LEGAL & JUDICIAL SYSTEM

• Village assemblies handled disputes
• Fines & confiscation common penalties
• Social boycott as punishment
• Detailed legal inscriptions

LVII. ECOLOGICAL IMPACT

• Intensive irrigation
• Tank construction altered landscape
• Delta transformation
• Agricultural intensification

Kaveri delta became agrarian powerhouse.

LVIII. LONG-TERM LEGACY OF CHOLAS

1. Strong local self-government model
2. Maritime orientation of South India
3. Temple-centered socio-economic order
4. Mature Dravidian architecture
5. Bronze sculpture perfection
6. Tamil cultural assertion
7. Spread of Indian culture to Southeast Asia

LIX. REVISION CAPSULE (EXAM READY)

Founder → Vijayalaya

Peak → Rajaraja I & Rajendra I

Capital → Thanjavur → Gangaikondacholapuram

Navy → Strongest in medieval India

Local Governance → Uttaramerur inscription

Temple Economy → Central institution

Art → Brihadeeswara & Nataraja

Historiography → Segmentary State debate

LXI. MAP WORK (VERY IMPORTANT FOR PRELIMS)

You must be able to locate the following on the map:

Core Region

• Kaveri Delta
• Thanjavur
• Uraiyur
• Gangaikondacholapuram

Important Ports

• Kaveripattinam (Puhar)
• Nagapattinam

Conquered Regions

• Sri Lanka (Anuradhapura)
• Maldives
• Vengi (Eastern Chalukya territory)
• Srivijaya (Southeast Asia)

UPSC often asks location-based elimination questions.

LXII. CHOLA NAVY – STRATEGIC DIMENSION

Features

• Organized naval fleet
• Transport + combat capability
• Used for overseas expeditions

Why Important?

• First major Indian dynasty to project power overseas
• Protected merchant guild interests
• Controlled Bay of Bengal trade

Strategic significance:

• Pre-modern maritime statecraft example

LXIII. ECONOMIC STRUCTURE – DEEP ANALYSIS

1️⃣ Agrarian Core

• Wet-rice cultivation
• Tank irrigation
• Land survey under Rajaraja

2️⃣ Temple-Centered Redistribution

• Temple as institutional landlord
• Tax-free devadana lands
• Redistribution via rituals & salaries

3️⃣ Commercial Expansion

• Merchant guilds operated transnationally
• Coin circulation indicates monetization
• Customs duties collected at ports

Chola economy = Agrarian base + Maritime surplus.

LXIV. CHOLA STATE – POWER STRUCTURE MODEL

You can frame Chola polity in 4 layers:

1. King (ritual sovereignty)
2. Mandalam (provincial elite)
3. Nadu (dominant local unit)
4. Village assemblies

Balance between royal control and local autonomy.

LXV. TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE – PRELIMS FOCUS

Know differences:

Vimana

• Tower above sanctum
• Tallest element in early Chola temples

Gopuram

• Gateway tower
• Became dominant in later South Indian temples

UPSC trap: confusing vimana with gopuram.

LXVI. GREAT LIVING CHOLA TEMPLES (UNESCO GROUP)

1. Brihadeeswara (Thanjavur)
2. Gangaikondacholapuram
3. Airavatesvara (Darasuram)

Features:

• Monumental granite
• Shaiva dedication
• Extensive inscriptions

LXVII. BRONZE ICONOGRAPHY – PRELIMS TRAPS

Pallava Bronze

• Compact posture
• Elliptical prabhamandala
• Limbs close-set

Chola Bronze

• Dynamic movement
• Circular prabhamandala
• Flared locks

If question asks stylistic distinction → focus on dynamism & circular halo.

LXVIII. IMPORTANT INSCRIPTIONS

Uttaramerur

• Kudavolai system
• Electoral qualifications

Leiden Copper Plates

• Rajaraja I grants
• Overseas trade links

Meikeerthi formula

• Royal introduction in inscriptions