India under British rule witnessed a large number of constitutional and administrative changes. Though these reforms were introduced primarily to strengthen British imperial interests, they unintentionally introduced several features of the modern State, including centralised administration, legislative institutions, representative elements and codified laws.
After the Battle of Buxar, the East India Company obtained the Diwani rights (right to collect revenue) of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. The Company agreed to pay:
The Company appointed:
In 1767, the British Government intervened in Indian affairs for the first time by demanding 10% share in the plunder amounting to 4 million pounds annually.
The Dual System introduced by the Company created a structure where:
This period was marked by:
The worsening situation compelled the British Government to regulate Company administration through legislative measures.
The Regulating Act marked the beginning of British parliamentary control over Company affairs in India and introduced the principle of centralised administration.
The Company directors were required to submit all correspondence related to:
Thus, for the first time, the British Cabinet received the right to supervise Indian affairs.
A Supreme Court of Judicature was established at Calcutta with:
However, disputes emerged between:
because the jurisdiction remained unclear.
The Governor-General received limited supervisory powers over:
The vague nature of these provisions created administrative confusion.
The Act was based on the principle of checks and balances.
The Amendments of 1781 clarified several ambiguities of the Regulating Act.
The Pitt's India Act considerably increased British Government control over Company administration.
The Company’s territories were officially termed:
A Board of Control was established consisting of:
The Board controlled:
All Company dispatches required Board approval.
The Act established:
The Act prohibited:
though these restrictions were frequently violated.
The Act of 1786 strengthened the office of the Governor-General.
Later, this power was extended to all Governor-Generals.
The Charter Act renewed Company privileges for another twenty years.
The Company was required to pay:
Royal approval became compulsory for appointment of:
Senior officials could not leave India without permission. Violation was treated as resignation.
The Company could issue licences for private trade called:
These licences promoted the opium trade with China.
Members of the Home Government continued to receive salaries from Indian revenues till 1919.
The Charter Act ended the Company’s monopoly over Indian trade.
Pressure arose because of:
The Company lost monopoly over Indian trade but retained:
Shareholders were guaranteed:
The Company retained territories for twenty years more, but the sovereignty of the Crown was explicitly acknowledged.
One lakh rupees annually was allocated for:
This marked the beginning of State responsibility for education.
Regulations of Bombay, Madras and Calcutta Councils had to be placed before the British Parliament.
Separate accounts were maintained for:
Christian missionaries were permitted to enter India and preach Christianity.
The Charter Act introduced extensive administrative and legislative centralisation.
The Company’s monopoly over:
was completely abolished.
Indian territories were to be governed officially in the name of the Crown.
Restrictions on:
were removed, paving the way for large-scale European settlement.
The Governor-General obtained authority to:
Bombay, Madras and other territories came under complete control of the Governor-General.
Bombay and Madras lost most legislative powers and could only propose laws to the Governor-General.
A law member was added to the Governor-General’s Council for legal advice.
Indian laws were to be codified and consolidated.
No Indian was to be denied employment on grounds of:
Though not implemented properly, this provision later became important in political agitation.
The administration was instructed to improve slave conditions and work towards abolition. Slavery was abolished in 1843.
The Charter Act introduced major administrative reforms.
The Company retained territories unless Parliament decided otherwise.
Strength of Court of Directors reduced to:
The Company’s patronage over services ended and civil services were opened through:
The law member became a full member of the Governor-General’s Executive Council.
Six additional members were included for legislative purposes.
The legislative branch came to be known as the:
Local representation was introduced in the legislature.
No law could be enacted without assent of the Governor-General, who also retained veto powers.
The Government of India Act was enacted after the Revolt of 1857 exposed the weaknesses of Company rule.
India was to be governed:
through:
The Secretary of State possessed:
The Council remained advisory.
The dual control system introduced under Pitt’s India Act came to an end.
The Governor-General acquired the title of:
The transfer of power was more formal than substantive because Company administration had already weakened considerably.
The Indian Councils Act introduced the principle of association of Indians in legislation.
The principle of including non-official members in legislative bodies was accepted.
Laws were now expected to emerge through:
rather than solely through executive authority.
Lord Canning introduced the portfolio system, laying foundations of cabinet government.
Bombay and Madras received legislative powers, laying foundations for provincial legislative councils.
The legislative councils had several weaknesses:
The Indian Councils Act was enacted in response to demands raised by the Indian National Congress.
Number of non-official members increased in:
The following bodies received power to recommend members:
Though the word “election” was avoided, indirect election was introduced.
Members could discuss financial statements in legislatures.
Members could ask questions on public matters after six days’ notice.
The Indian Councils Act marked the first attempt to introduce representative institutions.
Strength of Imperial Legislative Council was increased.
For the first time, an Indian joined the Viceroy’s Executive Council:
Provincial Executive Councils were expanded.
Powers of central and provincial legislatures increased.
Separate electorates for Muslims were introduced, creating long-term communal divisions.
Muslims received representation beyond population proportion.
Income qualification for Muslim voters remained lower than that for Hindus.
The electoral system remained highly indirect and unrepresentative.
The Government of India Act was based on the Montague–Chelmsford Reforms.In 1917, the British Government declared gradual introduction of responsible government in India as its objective.
The Central Legislature became bicameral:
Direct elections were introduced, though franchise remained restricted by:
Separate electorates extended to:
Dyarchy was introduced in provinces.
Provincial legislatures remained unicameral.
Provincial and central budgets were separated for the first time.
A High Commissioner was appointed in London to supervise Indian trade in Europe.
Secretary of State’s salary shifted from Indian revenues to British Exchequer.
The Simon Commission was appointed in 1927 to review the working of the 1919 Act.
This eventually led to:
The Government of India Act was the most comprehensive constitutional reform before independence.
The Act proposed an All-India Federation including:
Dyarchy was introduced in the Federal Executive.
Federal Legislature consisted of:
Governor-General retained:
Dyarchy in provinces was abolished and provinces received autonomy.
Provinces obtained independent financial authority and borrowing powers.
Six provinces received bicameral legislatures:
Other provinces retained unicameral legislatures.
Separate electorates and weightage extended to:
About 10% of the population obtained voting rights.
A Federal Court was established in 1937.
The India Council of the Secretary of State was abolished.
The proposed federation never came into existence because princely states did not join.
Amendment powers remained with British Parliament.
Communal electorates encouraged separatist tendencies and ultimately contributed to Partition.
The Act was rejected by the Congress, which demanded:
After the 1935 Act, several constitutional proposals emerged:
Finally, the Indian Independence Act led to the end of British rule in India.