Geography: One-Liners for Quick Revision [ Part I ]

A. The Arctic Circle (≈ 66½° N latitude) passes through 8 countries.

Countries (West → East):

1. Norway
2. Sweden
3. Finland
4. Russia
5. United States (Alaska)
6. Canada
7. Denmark (via Greenland)
8. Iceland

B. The Tropic of cancer passes through 17 countries, 3 continents and 6 water bodies.

Note : Egypt is a transcontinental country located in both Africa and Asia. 

SOIL CHARACTERISTICS

• Entisols are immature soils lacking vertical development of horizons.
• Ultisols are associated with humid temperate to tropical climates.
• Mollisols are commonly found in grassland regions.
• Inceptisols are young soils more developed than Entisols.

IMPORTANT REGIONS

• Sahel region lies in North Africa.
• Kherson lies near the Black Sea.
• Batken lies in Kyrgyzstan.
• Paracel Islands lie in the South China Sea.

HUMAN GEOGRAPHY

• Pygmies are found in Equatorial Africa.

VEGETATION

• Alfalfa is a grass.

🪨 SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

• Sedimentary rocks are formed by lithification through consolidation and compaction of sediments.
• Sandstone and shale are examples of sedimentary rocks.
• Sediments result from weathering and erosion of all types of rocks.
• Sedimentary rocks are fossiliferous and contain fossils of plants and animals.
• Till is an ice-deposited sediment.
• Loess is a wind-deposited sediment.

SOIL TYPES

• Red soil is formed due to weathering of metamorphic and igneous rocks. [ Trick : Red coloured = MI Phone ]

🪨 DEGREE OF WEATHERING (ORDER)

• Granite → Basalt → Dunite → Rhyolite. [ Trick : Great Baadshah of Delhi was Rohillas ]

IGNEOUS ROCKS

• Igneous rocks are formed from magma or lava through volcanic activity.
• Coal is a sedimentary rock.
• Granite is an igneous rock.

🪨 METAMORPHIC ROCKS

• Gneiss, slate, marble, schist, and quartzite are metamorphic rocks.

🌍 EARTH’S INTERIOR

• Asthenosphere is the main source of magma.
• Barysphere refers to the Earth’s core or sometimes the entire interior.

TYPES OF IGNEOUS ROCKS

• Extrusive igneous rocks form when magma cools on the Earth’s surface.
• Intrusive (plutonic) igneous rocks form when magma cools at depth.

 DEMOGRAPHY

• General Fertility Rate is the number of live births among women aged 15–44 years.

RENEWABLE ENERGY

• India’s first wind power project was established on 10 April 1999 at Amarsagar in Jaisalmer district, Rajasthan.

POPULATION

• Chandigarh, Uttarakhand, and Assam have population growth nearly equal to India’s average growth of about 17%.

INDIAN SOILS

• Alluvial soil is not found in Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Uttarakhand, and Sikkim.

AGRICULTURE

• India is the world’s largest producer of jute.
• West Bengal alone accounts for about 70% of India’s jute production.

PHYSIOGRAPHY

• Jindhagada Peak is the highest peak of the Eastern Ghats.

INTERCONTINENTAL STATES

• Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Russia, and Turkey are intercontinental countries.

GRASSLANDS

• Tropical grasslands include Savanna (East Africa), Campos (Brazil), and Llanos (Venezuela).
• Temperate grasslands include Pampas (Argentina), Prairie (North America), Veld (South Africa), Steppe (Central Asia), and Downs (Australia).

PLATE TECTONICS

• Convergent boundaries are zones where crust is destroyed as one plate subducts beneath another.
• The place where one plate sinks below another is called a subduction zone.
• Convergence occurs between an oceanic–continental plate, two oceanic plates, and two continental plates.
• Divergent boundaries are zones where new crust is created as plates move away from each other.
• Spreading sites are locations where plates move apart.
• The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is the best-known example of a divergent boundary separating American plates from Eurasian and African plates.
• Transform boundaries are zones where crust is neither created nor destroyed as plates slide horizontally.

EARTH MOVEMENTS

• Orogeny is the process of mountain building.
• Epeirogeny is the process of continental building. [ Trick : E-CB ] 

🪨 ROCKS (GENERAL)

• Rocks do not have a definite chemical composition.
• Igneous rocks include granite, gabbro, pegmatite, basalt, volcanic breccia, and tuff.
• Sedimentary rocks include sandstone, conglomerate, limestone, shale, loess, chert, halite, and potash.
• Metamorphic rocks include gneiss, slate, schist, and marble.
• Mineral richness is greater in igneous rocks than sedimentary rocks.

CLIMATOLOGY

• Tropical cyclones mostly form on the western margins of oceans.
• Tropical cyclones do not form in eastern tropical oceans due to cold currents lowering sea surface temperature.

ATMOSPHERE & HYDROSPHERE

• The troposphere is the lowest atmospheric layer and contains about 80% of atmospheric mass and 99% of water vapour and aerosols.
• Nearly 59% of water falling on land returns to the atmosphere through evaporation.

TIDES

• Spring tides occur when the sun, moon, and earth are in a straight line.
• Spring tides occur twice a month during full moon and new moon.
• Neap tides occur when the sun and moon are at right angles to each other.
• Neap tides occur about seven days after spring tides.
• The moon’s gravitational pull is stronger than the sun’s but is reduced during neap tides due to counteracting forces.
• The period when sea level falls from high tide to low tide is called ebb.

INDIAN CLIMATE

• Chillai Kalan is a 40-day period of severe winter in Kashmir.
• Chillai Kalan occurs from 21 December to 29 January.

GEOGRAPHY THOUGHT

• Geography studies the areal differentiation of the earth’s surface (Richard Hartshorne).
• Geography studies differences of phenomena related to different parts of the earth’s surface (Hettner).

🪨 STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY

• Clastic dikes are formed when sediments fill pre-existing cracks.

DESERTS

Hot Deserts

• Mojave Desert lies in California.
• Sonoran Desert lies in Mexico and the USA.
• Chihuahuan Desert lies in Mexico and the USA.
• Sechura Desert lies in Peru.
• Sahara Desert lies in Africa.
• Kalahari Desert lies in Namibia, South Africa, and Botswana. [ Trick : Kalahari : BNS ]
• Danakil Desert lies in Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Djibouti. [ Trick : D : D EE ]
• Arabian Desert lies in the Arabian Peninsula.
• Thar Desert lies in India.
• Great Victoria, Gibson, Great Sandy, Tanami, and Simpson deserts lie in Australia.

Cold Deserts

• Great Basin Desert lies in North America.
• Patagonian Desert lies in Argentina, Chile, and Falkland Islands.
• Karakum Desert lies in Turkmenistan.
• Kyzylkum Desert lies in Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan.
• Taklamakan Desert lies in China.
• Gobi Desert lies in Central Asia. [ Both Mongolia and northern China ]  [ Note : Very IMP Asked in UPSC  ] 
• Ordos Desert lies in China.
• Arctic Desert lies in polar regions.

Coastal Deserts

• Atacama Desert lies in Chile.
• Namib Desert lies in southwestern Africa.
  
  [ Note : Namib Desert is mostly in Namibia, covering its entire coastline, but it also extends north into Angola and south into South Africa, making it a shared desert ecosystem. While the famous Namib Sand Sea is a UNESCO site located entirely within Namibia's Namib-Naukluft Park, the broader Namib Desert spans parts of three southern African countries ]

MISCELLANEOUS

• Africa has 16 landlocked countries.
• Basalt is an igneous rock.
• Slate is a metamorphic rock.
• Black soil is formed after volcanic eruptions.
• Red soil supports tobacco cultivation.
• Red soil is formed from metamorphic and igneous rocks.

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY & GEOLOGY

• Clastic dikes are formed when sediments fill a pre-existing crack.
• The period between high tide and low tide when sea level is falling is called ebb.
• Mineral richness : igneous rocks > sedimentary rocks

SOILS IN INDIA

• In India, Inceptisols (39.4%) >  Entisols (28%) > Alfisols >  Vertisols
• Khadar region is an area where soils are naturally rejuvenated every year.
• Khadar region is low-lying, flood-prone, and affected by waterlogging.
• New alluvial soil is deposited annually in the Khadar region by floods.

SOIL CONSERVATION METHODS

• Shelterbelts are rows of trees planted in coastal and dry regions to reduce wind movement and protect soil cover.
• Terrace farming is a soil conservation method practised on hilly terrains.

SOIL CHEMISTRY

• Soil becomes acidic due to the presence of hydrogen ions (H⁺).
• Oceans become acidic due to increased carbon dioxide (CO₂). [ Highly IMP ]
• Leaching decreases soil fertility due to excessive irrigation or floods.
• Drip irrigation can reduce leaching losses.
• Fertigation involves dissolving pesticides in drip irrigation.

SOIL TYPES & CROPS

• Red soil is formed by weathering of metamorphic and igneous rocks.
• Red soil supports cotton, tobacco, wheat, potatoes, and fruits.  [ Trick : Red Tobacco ]
• Yellow soil of Odisha and Chhattisgarh supports sugarcane, rice, corn, mangoes, and oranges.
• Black soil supports groundnut, cotton, wheat, jowar, and chillies.
• After volcanic eruptions, weathering and cooling of lava results in black soil formation.
• Black basalt soil of the Deccan Plateau is rich in humus, iron, magnesia, lime, and alumina.

SOIL SCIENCE & AGRICULTURE

• Pedology is the study of soils.
• Cash crops include coffee, sugarcane, peanuts, cotton, tobacco, rubber, and banana.
• In the quincunx system, trees are planted at four corners of a square with one plant in the centre.
• Papaya and pineapple are examples of crops grown using the quincunx system.

EFFECTS OF EXCESSIVE IRRIGATION

• Excessive irrigation increases soil salinity and alkalinity.
• Excessive irrigation leads to waterlogging.
• Excessive irrigation hinders air circulation in soil.
• Excessive irrigation reduces soil temperature.
• Excessive irrigation causes shallow root development.
• Excessive irrigation leads to marshy land formation.
• Excessive irrigation increases nitrate formation.
• Excessive irrigation increases soil acidity.

SOIL PARTICLE SIZE

• Soil particle size decreases in the order: rock > gravel > sand > silt > clay.

AGRICULTURE STATISTICS

• The first Agriculture Census in India was conducted in 1970–71.
• The 11th and current Agriculture Census was conducted in 2021–22.

INDIAN GEOGRAPHY

• Gulf of Mannar is known as a biological paradise.
• The Deccan Plateau slopes from west to east.
• Most rivers of the Deccan Plateau flow from west to east.
• The Deccan Plateau extends into the north-east covering Meghalaya, Karbi-Anglong Plateau, and North Cachar Hills.
• Garo, Khasi, and Jaintia hills are the prominent ranges from west to east.

DECCAN PLATEAU

• The Deccan Plateau extends over eight Indian states.
• The term “Deccan” is derived from the Sanskrit word Dakshina meaning south.
• The Deccan Plateau lies between the Western and Eastern Ghats south of the Narmada River.
• It is bounded by the Western Ghats in the west, Eastern Ghats in the east, and Satpura, Maikal, and Mahadeo hills in the north.
• The Deccan Plateau is volcanic in origin with step-like lava layers.
• It is suitable for cotton cultivation and rich in mineral resources.
• The Deccan Plateau is an important source of hydroelectric power.

ECOLOGY & ENVIRONMENT

• The term ecology was first used by German zoologist Ernst Haeckel in 1869 as ‘oekologie’.

EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKES

• Earthquakes cause soil liquefaction.
• Earthquakes result in ground lurching.
• Earthquakes trigger avalanches.
• Earthquakes may cause floods due to dam and levee failures.
• Earthquakes can lead to fires.
• Earthquakes can generate tsunamis.

🪨 GEOLOGY & GEOMORPHOLOGY

• Foliated sedimentary rocks are found in Antietam National Battlefield, Maryland.
• Foliated sedimentary rocks are also found in Harpers Ferry National Historical Park, Maryland and West Virginia.

INDUSTRIAL GEOGRAPHY

• Osaka is a centre of cotton textile industry.
• Detroit is a major automobile manufacturing centre.
• Cuba is famous for cigar production.
• St. Petersburg is known for shipbuilding.

LIMNOLOGY

• The limnetic zone is the most photosynthetically active zone of a lake.
• The limnetic zone is the primary habitat of planktonic species.
• Phytoplankton are microscopic floating organisms present in the upper illuminated layer of water.

VOLCANOES

• Mount Rainier is located in the USA.
• Mount Etna is located in Italy.
• Mount Parícutin is located in Mexico.
• Mount Apo is located in the Philippines.

ISLANDS (WEST TO EAST)

• Sumatra, Java, Bali, and Lombok are arranged from west to east.

TRIBES / ETHNIC GROUPS

• Koryaks are found in Russia.
• Punan tribe is found in Borneo.
• Ruwallah tribe is found in Arabia.
• Lapps are found in Finland and Sweden.
• Jews are found in Israel.
• Teda are found in Libya.
• Beja are found in Egypt.
• Lur are found in Iran.

RIVERS

• Teesta River was earlier a tributary of the Ganga and is now a tributary of the Brahmaputra.

AGRICULTURE & HORTICULTURE

• Citrus fruits are associated with the Mediterranean region.

MOUNTAINS

• Mount Chimborazo is located in Ecuador.
• Pyrenees Mountains lie between Spain and France.

CLIMATOLOGY

• Taifu is associated with Japan.
• Baguio is associated with the Philippines.

NATURAL VEGETATION

• Epiphytes are found in equatorial regions.
• Acacia is characteristic of savanna vegetation.
• Baobab is found in the Sahara region.
• Cedars are found in the Mediterranean region.

 INDIAN PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

• The Damodar River is famous for fault valley drainage.
• Savanna or tropical grassland region is known as the “big game country” or “land of safari”.

SOIL RICHNESS & CHARACTERISTICS

• Red soil is rich in iron oxide, iron, and aluminium and is acidic in nature.
• Red soil is derived from crystalline and metamorphic rocks.
• Black soil (regur) is rich in magnesium, lime, iron, and organic matter.
• Black soil is poor in nitrogen and phosphoric content.
• Black soil has the highest water-holding capacity.
• Laterite soil is rich in iron and aluminium.
• Laterite soil is deficient in nitrogen and potash.
• Laterite soil forms due to high rainfall and high temperature.
• Alluvial soil is rich in potash and poor in phosphorus.
• Arid soil has high concentration of gypsum, calcium carbonate, and sodium.
• New alluvial soil is called Khadar.
• Old alluvial soil is called Bhangar.
• Alluvial soil is the most widely available soil in India.
• Alluvial soil is found in northern plains, river valleys, deltas, and estuaries of peninsular India.

NUTRIENT DEFICIENCY IN SOILS

• Phosphorus-deficient soils include alluvial and black soils.
• Nitrogen-deficient soils include black and laterite soils.
• Potash-deficient soil is laterite soil.

MNEMONIC 

• Al – Ph – B – N – L – P

GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE

• The Mesozoic Era is known as the Age of Reptiles.

ASTRONOMY

• Proxima Centauri is the nearest star to the Earth.
• Alpha Centauri is the nearest star system to the Sun.
• Sirius is the brightest star in the night sky and is also called the Dog Star.

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

• The Congo Basin is called the Heart of Africa and is the world’s largest carbon sink.
• Laterite erosion in Jharkhand results in the deposition of bauxite.
• Kerala is the largest producer of thorium in India.
• Marmagao Port in Goa is the main iron ore exporting port of India.

 RIVERS OF INDIA (ODISHA FOCUS)

• The Brahmani River is formed by the confluence of the Sankh and South Koel rivers near Rourkela.
• Rengali Dam is located at Angul on the Brahmani River.
• Samal Barrage is located at Talcher on the Brahmani River.
• The origin of the Brahmani River is mythologically associated with Sage Parashara and Satyavati, the mother of Ved Vyasa.

BAITARANI RIVER (IN NEWS)

• The Baitarani River originates from the Gonasika or Guptaganga hills in Keonjhar district.
• The river starts flowing over a stone shaped like a cow’s nostril.
• The left canal of the Baitarani River under the Anandpur Barrage was inaugurated in Keonjhar district in 2023.
• A 28 km canal connecting the Baitarani and Salandi rivers provides irrigation to 2,221 hectares in Hatadihi and Anandpur blocks.
• The Haladia Dam is part of the Subarnarekha irrigation project.
• A barrage over the Khairi Bhandan River was planned at Anlabani village in Mayurbhanj district.

INDIAN PHYSIOGRAPHY

• Karbi Anglong Plateau is an extension of the Peninsular Plateau.

LADAKH GEOGRAPHY

• Ladakh is known for its ancient monasteries called gompas.
• Hemis, Thiksey, and Diskit are famous monasteries of Ladakh.
• Nubra Valley, Pangong Tso, and Tso Moriri are famous meadows and landscapes of Ladakh.

ISLAND GEOGRAPHY

• Lakshadweep is a uni-district Union Territory.
• Lakshadweep consists of 36 islands, 12 atolls, 3 reefs, 5 submerged banks, and 10 inhabited islands.

VEGETATION & ENVIRONMENT

• Eucalyptus grows in high rainfall areas and on steep slopes prone to landslides.

🪨 GEOLOGY (BASIC NOTES)

• Igneous plus metamorphic rocks are more resistant than sedimentary rocks.
• Rock types include igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks.
• Diastrophism refers to large-scale deformation of the Earth’s crust.

SOIL & IRRIGATION

• Excessive irrigation increases nitrate formation in soil.
• Excessive irrigation increases soil acidity.

 PLATEAUS & HILLS (RAJASTHAN)

• Oriya Plateau is located in Sirohi, Rajasthan.
• Plateau of Mesa or Hill of Bika is located in Chittorgarh.
• Plateau of Kraska is located in Alwar.
• Tirkut Hill is located in Jaisalmer.

 SEDIMENTARY ROCK DISTRIBUTION

INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARIES & LINES

MINERAL PRODUCTION (MAJOR REGIONS)

IRON ORE PRODUCING AREAS

ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

WORLD IRON MINES (Country-wise Grouping)

RIVERS & WETLANDS

• Bhagirathi–Bhilangna is a major tributary of the Ganga.
• Ningnag Wetland (Kashmir) is a tectonic wetland.
• Rudrasagar Lake (Tripura) is a sedimentation reservoir.
• Loktak Lake (Manipur) is an oxbow-type wetland.
• Renuka Lake (Himachal Pradesh) is the smallest Ramsar wetland in India.

SOILS IN INDIA

• Soil distribution in India: Inceptisols (39.4%) > Entisols (28%) > Alfisols > Vertisols.

FOREST LEGISLATION (INDIA)

• 1855: Forest conservation rules introduced by Lord Dalhousie.
• 1894: First National Forest Policy under Lord Elgin.
• 1952: National Forest Policy after independence (amended in 1988).
• Target: 33% forest cover of total geographical area.

PASSES & LATITUDES

• Khardung La Pass is among the highest motorable passes in the world.
• Tropic of Cancer is shortest in Gujarat and longest in Madhya Pradesh.
• Tropic of Cancer passes through 8 Indian states.
• Globally, it passes through 17 countries, 3 continents, and 6 major water bodies.

COUNTRIES & AGRICULTURE

• Chile is the world’s longest north–south country.
• Iran is the largest producer of saffron, followed by India.

WINDS & ATMOSPHERIC TERMS

• Doldrums are the belt of calm near the equator.
• Coriolis force causes deflection of winds.
• Roaring Forties are strong westerlies in the Southern Hemisphere.
• Harmattan is a dry, dust-laden wind of West Africa known as the “Doctor Wind”.

FOLD MOUNTAINS (EXAMPLES)

• Major fold mountains include Himalayas, Andes, Alps, Urals, Appalachians, Atlas, Hindukush.

IMPORTANT PEAKS

• Rocky Mountains: Mount Elbert
• Appalachians: Mount Mitchell
• Alps: Mont Blanc (source region of Rhine & Danube)
• Scandinavian Range: Galdhøpiggen
• Carpathians: Gerlachovský Štít
• Ural Mountains: Mount Narodnaya
• Sierra Nevada: Mount Whitney
• Alaska Range: Mount McKinley (Denali)
• Andes: Mount Aconcagua (longest mountain chain)
• Atlas Mountains: Mount Toubkal
• Altai Mountains: Mount Belukha
• Drakensberg: Highest peak in Lesotho
• Hindukush: Tirich Mir
• Arakan Yoma: Mount Kennedy
• Kunlun Range: Mount Muztagh Ata
• Dhaulagiri means “White Mountain” (Nepal).

TRIBES & ETHNIC GROUPS

• Bushmen: Namibia
• Pygmies: Congo Basin (Zaire)
• Eskimos (Inuit): Alaska

OCEANOGRAPHY

• Ocean salinity is highest near the Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn.

TIME ZONES

• France has the maximum number of time zones (13), including overseas territories.

GEOLOGY & CLIMATOLOGY

• Foliation is the alignment of minerals into layers during metamorphism.
• Dendroclimatology studies past climate using tree rings.

INDIAN HILLS & RANGES

• Mizo (Lushai) Hills: Mizoram
• Patkai Hills: Part of Purvanchal Range
• Mishmi Hills: Arunachal Pradesh
• Abor Hills: Arunachal Pradesh
• Mikir Hills: Assam
• Mount Tiyi: Nagaland