The Harappan Civilization, also known as the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC), represents one of the earliest urban civilizations of the ancient world. Its discovery fundamentally transformed the understanding of Indian history by pushing the beginnings of civilization in the Indian subcontinent back by nearly 2,500 years, making it broadly contemporary with the civilizations of Mesopotamia and Egypt. Although enormous archaeological evidence has been recovered over the last century, many aspects of the civilization continue to remain subjects of scholarly debate.
The discovery of the Harappan Civilization was not a single event but the result of several observations, explorations and excavations carried out over nearly a century. Initially, the significance of the archaeological remains at Harappa was not understood, and many early explorers either misidentified or underestimated the importance of the site.
| Year/Period | Person | Contribution |
|---|---|---|
| 1826 | Charles Masson | First noticed the ancient mounds at Harappa (Sahiwal District, Punjab). Believed the site was connected with Alexander's battle against King Porus. |
| Few years later | Alexander Burnes | Visited Harappa and considered it important but could not determine its historical significance. |
| 1850s | Alexander Cunningham | Conducted a small excavation and discovered ancient structures but remained unconvinced about the site's importance. |
| 1872 | Alexander Cunningham (Director General, ASI) | Revisited Harappa and found the site badly damaged due to railway contractors removing bricks. Discovered stone tools, pottery and a seal depicting a bull with an unknown script. Mistakenly concluded that the seal was foreign because the bull lacked a hump. |
| Early 20th Century | Pandit Hiranananda Sastri | Considered excavation at Harappa unnecessary. |
| Early 20th Century | D. R. Bhandarkar | Incorrectly believed Mohenjodaro was only about 250 years old. |
| 1920 | Daya Ram Sahni | Began systematic excavation of Harappa. |
| 1921 | R. D. Banerji | Began excavation of Mohenjodaro. |
| 1924 | Sir John Marshall (Director General, ASI) | Officially announced the discovery of the Indus (Harappan) Civilization, revealing the existence of an ancient urban civilization in India. |
Harappa, situated on the banks of the River Ravi in present-day Sahiwal District (Punjab, Pakistan), occupies a central position in the history of Indian archaeology because it was from this site that the civilization derived its name.The archaeological mounds of Harappa had attracted attention long before their actual significance was understood. Early visitors recognised that the site contained ancient remains, but they failed to appreciate that it represented an entirely unknown civilization.The excavation begun by Daya Ram Sahni in 1920 became the turning point in Indian archaeology. Combined with the excavation of Mohenjodaro by R. D. Banerji in 1921, it ultimately led John Marshall to announce in 1924 the discovery of an entirely new civilization.This announcement established that civilization in India extended back to the third millennium BCE, placing it alongside the great civilizations of Mesopotamia and Egypt.
Before systematic excavation began, the archaeological mounds of Harappa suffered extensive destruction.One of the greatest losses occurred during the construction of railway lines in the nineteenth century when railway contractors removed large quantities of baked bricks from the site for construction purposes.When Alexander Cunningham revisited Harappa in 1872, he observed severe damage caused by this large-scale removal of bricks. Although he recovered stone tools, pottery, and a seal bearing an unfamiliar script, he misunderstood the importance of these discoveries and therefore failed to recognise the existence of a previously unknown civilization.
Systematic archaeological work finally began in the early twentieth century.In 1920, Daya Ram Sahni initiated scientific excavation at Harappa.In 1921, R. D. Banerji started excavations at Mohenjodaro.The evidence obtained from these excavations demonstrated that both sites belonged to the same urban civilization possessing distinctive architecture, craft traditions, writing, and material culture.The formal announcement by John Marshall in 1924 established the existence of what came to be known as the Harappan Civilization.
The discovery of the Harappan Civilization had profound historical significance.It demonstrated that civilization in the Indian subcontinent had originated much earlier than previously believed. The beginnings of Indian civilization were pushed back by approximately 2,500 years, placing the Harappan Civilization among the earliest urban civilizations of the ancient world.The discovery also provided India with an archaeological civilization comparable in antiquity to those of Mesopotamia and Egypt.
Following the discovery of Harappa and Mohenjodaro, archaeological exploration expanded rapidly.During the decades that followed:
Despite this progress, many aspects of the civilization continue to remain uncertain and subjects of scholarly debate.
In the initial decades after its discovery, scholars relied heavily on Mesopotamian evidence to establish the chronology of the Harappan Civilization.As a result:
Recent archaeological research has adopted a different perspective.Modern scholars increasingly argue that the Harappan Civilization should be understood independently rather than through a Mesopotamian framework.This approach recognises the civilization as an indigenous cultural tradition possessing its own developmental trajectory.
Initially, archaeological attention concentrated mainly on the two great urban centres:
These sites appeared exceptional because of their impressive architecture and large size.Subsequent discoveries demonstrated that they were not the only major urban centres.Other large Harappan settlements include:
The discovery of these sites significantly broadened understanding of the civilization's geographical extent.
Modern archaeological research has increasingly focused on towns and villages, rather than only major cities.These smaller settlements have revealed that Harappan civilization possessed an integrated network of cities, towns and rural villages.Important examples mentioned include:
Location: Approximately 40 km east of KarachiNature of Settlement:Small unfortified Harappan village measuring about 1.4 hectares (also described as approximately 5 hectares in later discussions).
Location:Haryana
Although Harappan settlements shared many common cultural characteristics, archaeological evidence clearly demonstrates considerable regional as well as inter-site diversity.Differences are visible in:
Typical black-on-red Harappan pottery formed only 1% of the pottery assemblage.
Mud-brick platforms situated in the southern part of the citadel have been interpreted as "fire altars."These structures are absent from most other Harappan sites.
Post-cremation burials were far more numerous at Harappa than at Mohenjodaro, indicating differences in funerary traditions.
Modern archaeological research has questioned several earlier interpretations.
The so-called Great Granaries at Harappa and Mohenjodaro are now considered by many scholars to have been incorrectly identified, and there are strong reasons to doubt whether these buildings were actually granaries.
The suggestion that the Lothal Dockyard was merely an irrigation reservoir has not gained wide acceptance.
These reinterpretations have significantly influenced the understanding of Harappan political and social organisation.Earlier interpretations of the so-called granaries had been used to support the idea of a strong centralized state. Reassessment of these structures has therefore affected broader interpretations regarding the nature of Harappan administration.
Recent excavations, particularly those conducted at Harappa by a joint American–Pakistani archaeological team, represent a major advancement in archaeological methodology.These excavations have emphasised:
These methods have greatly improved understanding of the daily life, health, and food habits of the Harappan people.
A language is a system of spoken symbols used for communication between human beings. A script, on the other hand, is a system of visual communication in which signs or symbols are written on a surface to represent specific sounds or meanings. Human societies developed spoken languages long before they invented writing systems. The invention of writing marked one of the greatest turning points in human civilization because it enabled ideas and knowledge to be preserved and transmitted across generations and over long distances.Among the earliest writing systems of the ancient world were the Cuneiform script of Mesopotamia, invented around 3400 BCE, and the Egyptian Hieroglyphic script, developed around 3100 BCE. In the Indian subcontinent, the earliest substantial evidence of writing belongs to the Harappan Civilization, generally dated to about 2600 BCE. However, more recent archaeological discoveries indicate that the origins of the Harappan script may extend back to the second half of the fourth millennium BCE.
| Civilization | Writing System | Approximate Date | Writing Material |
|---|---|---|---|
| Mesopotamia | Cuneiform | c. 3400 BCE | Moist clay tablets |
| Egypt | Hieroglyphics | c. 3100 BCE | Papyrus sheets made from reeds |
| Harappan Civilization | Harappan Script | c. 2600 BCE (possibly earlier, second half of the 4th millennium BCE) | Mostly seals and sealings; writing on perishable materials is also likely |
The Harappan script represents the earliest known script of the Indian subcontinent. Most surviving examples occur on seals and sealings, although it is reasonable to assume that writing was also done on perishable materials, which have not survived.Despite the existence of numerous inscriptions, the script remains undeciphered. Consequently, historians cannot directly use Harappan written records to reconstruct the political, social, economic or religious history of the civilization. This undeciphered nature remains one of the greatest mysteries of ancient Indian history.
The invention of writing represented a revolutionary stage in human communication and intellectual development. It enabled societies to preserve ideas permanently and transmit information across space and time.Writing served different purposes in different sections of society:
Across most ancient civilizations, the emergence of writing coincided with the rise of cities and organized states. For this reason, historians regard the invention of writing as one of the major milestones in the development of civilization.
The beginning of writing also represents an important turning point in the study of history because it provides written evidence for historians.However, written evidence covers only a small portion of the human past. The long period before the invention of writing is known as Prehistory, and the history of non-literate societies must primarily be reconstructed through archaeological evidence. Even in periods where written records exist, archaeological sources remain indispensable for understanding past societies.
The history of writing in the Indian subcontinent presents several unresolved questions.Although the Harappans were clearly literate, their script has not yet been deciphered. Consequently, their written records cannot currently be used for historical reconstruction.Another major question concerns the fate of writing after the decline of the Harappan Civilization around 1900 BCE. It is possible that writing continued on perishable materials, but almost no surviving examples are available between 1900 BCE and the 4th century BCE.Thus:
These two scripts appear fundamentally different from one another, leaving a significant gap in the history of writing in India.
The distinction between History, Prehistory, and Protohistory is not straightforward in the Indian context because writing developed unevenly across different regions.
Prehistory refers to the period before the invention of writing. Since written evidence is absent, this period is reconstructed primarily through archaeological remains.
The historical period begins when decipherable written records become available to historians.
The term Protohistory occupies an intermediate position between prehistory and history and carries different meanings in different contexts.In the European context, Protohistory refers to societies that did not possess writing themselves but were mentioned in the written records of neighbouring literate civilizations.In the Indian context, Protohistory includes:
The transition to literacy did not occur simultaneously throughout the Indian subcontinent.Areas beyond the Harappan cultural zone remained non-literate for long periods.Based on the earliest surviving deciphered inscriptions, the historical period in North India would technically begin with the 4th century BCE. However, since writing on perishable materials probably existed earlier and historical traditions relating to kings and philosophers are available from the 6th century BCE, there is a strong case for placing the beginning of the historical period in North India in the 6th century BCE.For South India, evidence includes:
Together, these suggest that the transition to the historical period in South India occurred between the 4th and 2nd centuries BCE.If the Harappan script is deciphered in the future, the beginning of India's historical period may be pushed back to the third millennium BCE or even earlier.
Ethno-archaeology studies surviving traditional practices to understand ancient societies.Many traditional features of Indian life—including agriculture, animal husbandry, house construction, clothing, and food habits—have continued over long periods. Modern craft traditions therefore provide valuable clues for reconstructing ancient technologies.Technology includes much more than the manufacture of objects. It also involves:
A traditional carnelian bead-making industry continues to exist at Khambhat (Gujarat).The study of modern bead-making techniques provides valuable evidence for understanding:
The earliest deciphered inscriptions in India belong to the late fourth century BCE and are written in the Brahmi and Kharoshthi scripts.The inscriptions of Emperor Ashoka represent the most important examples.Their major characteristics include:
Since there are no obvious links between the Harappan script and either Brahmi or Kharoshthi, the evolution of writing during the intervening centuries remains uncertain.
The Vedic literature contains no direct reference to writing.However, certain features have led some historians to suggest that writing may have been known:
These observations have been interpreted as indirect evidence for the possible knowledge of writing.
Besides the Harappan script, several other ancient scripts remain undeciphered or difficult to interpret.
An elaborate calligraphic form of Brahmi appearing on short inscriptions in various parts of India.
A stylized ornamental variation of Brahmi whose letters resemble conch shells (Shankha).Characteristics:
Other difficult scripts include:
Before the invention of coins, economic exchange was conducted through barter.Both Stone Age and Chalcolithic communities exchanged goods without currency. The Harappans also maintained an extensive trade network primarily based on barter.
The Rig Veda mentions:
These terms refer to gold ornaments or gold pieces, not coins.Later Vedic texts mention:
These probably represented metal pieces of standard weight, rather than fully developed coinage.
The earliest definite literary and archaeological evidence for coinage in India belongs to the 6th–5th centuries BCE.Its appearance coincided with:
Important literary references occur in:
These texts mention:
The standard unit of Indian coinage was based upon the red-and-black seed of the Gunja berry (Abrus precatorius).This unit was known as:
In South India, theoretical standards were calculated using the relationship between:
The emergence of coins did not eliminate barter.Both systems of exchange continued together for a long period, with barter remaining important alongside coin-based transactions.
| Topic | Key Facts |
|---|---|
| Earliest Indian Script | Harappan Script (Undeciphered) |
| Oldest Deciphered Script | Brahmi (4th century BCE) |
| Other Script | Kharoshthi |
| Main Harappan Writing Medium | Seals and Sealings |
| Protohistory (India) | Harappan Civilization + Vedic Period (1500–500 BCE) |
| Ethno-archaeology Example | Carnelian bead-making at Khambhat (Gujarat) |
| Earliest Coinage | 6th–5th centuries BCE |
| Coin Weight Unit | Ratti (Gunja seed) |
| Early Exchange System | Barter |
The period between c. 3000–2000 BCE witnessed the expansion of village settlements into new geographical regions. Many of these settlements existed contemporaneously with the urban Harappan Civilization, indicating that the rise of cities was accompanied by the continued existence of village communities. Archaeological evidence for this period is considerably richer than for earlier millennia, allowing the identification of distinct regional cultural traditions.
Harappa, situated on the banks of the River Ravi, has yielded evidence of an early cultural phase known as the Ravi Aspect of the Hakra Phase, dated approximately to c. 3500/3300–2800 BCE.This represents one of the earliest developmental stages of the Harappan cultural tradition and provides valuable evidence regarding the gradual evolution of urban civilization.
The settlement consisted of a small village composed of huts supported by wooden posts, with walls made of plastered reeds. Unlike the Mature Harappan phase, there was no evidence of mud-brick buildings, although fragments of mud bricks, probably belonging to a kiln, were recovered.
The site yielded:
The most significant discovery consists of potsherds bearing pre-firing marks and post-firing graffiti, representing the formative stage of the Harappan script. These discoveries indicate that the origins of Harappan writing extended well before the Mature Harappan period.
| Feature | Details |
|---|---|
| Site | Harappa |
| River | Ravi |
| Phase | Ravi Aspect of Hakra Phase |
| Date | c. 3500/3300–2800 BCE |
| Settlement | Small village with wooden huts |
| Walls | Plastered reeds |
| Structures | No mud-brick buildings |
| Important Evidence | Pre-firing marks and post-firing graffiti representing early Harappan script |
Allahdino was a small unfortified Harappan village, situated approximately 40 km east of Karachi.Although measuring only about 1.4 hectares, the settlement displayed the essential characteristics of the Harappan Civilization, demonstrating that even small villages participated fully in Harappan cultural traditions.
The houses were constructed primarily of mud bricks, many of which rested upon stone foundations. Buildings were aligned along a west–south-west to east–north-east orientation, indicating planned settlement organisation.One particularly important structure consisted of a large multi-roomed building erected on a substantial mud-brick platform in the north-eastern sector of the excavated area. Its size and location suggest that it possessed special significance, although its exact function remains uncertain.Another building was associated with three wells, indicating careful attention to water supply within the settlement.
Despite its modest size, Allahdino contained all the principal features of Harappan civilization and illustrates that Harappan culture was not confined only to major urban centres.A notable regional characteristic was that typical black-on-red Harappan pottery constituted only about one per cent of the total pottery assemblage, indicating significant local variation in ceramic traditions.
| Feature | Details |
|---|---|
| Location | About 40 km east of Karachi |
| Nature | Small unfortified Harappan village |
| Area | About 1.4 hectares |
| House Material | Mud bricks on stone foundations |
| Orientation | West–south-west to east–north-east |
| Special Structure | Multi-roomed building on mud-brick platform |
| Other Feature | Building associated with three wells |
| Distinctive Pottery | Black-on-red pottery only about 1% |
Burzahom represents one of the most important Neolithic sites of Kashmir.The site was discovered in 1935 by de Terra and Paterson, who initially believed it belonged to the Harappan Civilization. Its true archaeological significance was recognised much later following excavations carried out by the Archaeological Survey of India between 1960 and 1971 under T. N. Khazanchi.
Burzahom contains four occupational periods:
Radiocarbon dating places Period I before c. 2920 BCE.
The Kashmir Neolithic culture at Burzahom is characterised by:
Many of these cultural features also occur in Central Asia and China, suggesting wider cultural connections.
A wheel-made red pot containing 950 agate and carnelian beads was recovered from the early levels of Period II.Another globular pot carried the painting of a horned deity, a motif also known from early Harappan levels at Kot Diji.These discoveries suggest interaction between the Neolithic communities of Burzahom and the Indus region.
| Feature | Details |
|---|---|
| Discovery | de Terra & Paterson (1935) |
| Excavation | ASI (1960–71), T. N. Khazanchi |
| Occupation | Four periods |
| Period I | Before c. 2920 BCE |
| Distinctive Features | Pit dwellings, bone tools, perforated harvesters, animal burials |
| Harappan Contact | Carnelian beads and horned deity motif similar to Kot Diji |
Ganeshwar emerged as an important copper-working centre during the protohistoric period.Although archaeological reports have not produced direct evidence of copper smelting in the form of furnaces or crucibles, the recovery of hundreds of copper objects from this relatively small settlement strongly indicates specialised copper production.
Ganeshwar probably supplied copper objects to neighbouring communities and may have served as an important source of copper for both Early Harappan and Mature Harappan settlements.
Several discoveries indicate close interaction with Harappan communities:
These similarities indicate sustained cultural contact between the Ganeshwar culture and the Harappan Civilization.
| Feature | Details |
|---|---|
| Importance | Copper-working centre |
| Direct Smelting Evidence | Not found |
| Major Finds | Hundreds of copper objects |
| Harappan Links | Similar pottery, Reserved Slip Ware, Double spiral-headed pins |
| Possible Role | Supplier of copper to Early and Mature Harappans |
Balathal provides valuable evidence regarding agriculture, animal husbandry and food habits during the protohistoric period.
Animal bones recovered include:
Wild animals account for only about 5% of the total faunal remains.
Among these, cattle constitute nearly 73% of the faunal assemblage.
Agricultural remains include:
Large quantities of cereals and pulses were stored in storage bins.Grain was ground using stone querns, while bread was probably prepared on handmade flat pans (Tawas) placed over U-shaped chulhas, similar to those still used in villages.Radiocarbon evidence places the protohistoric settlement at Balathal in the late fourth millennium BCE, making it contemporary with the Early Harappan phase at Kot Diji and the Jodhpura–Ganeshwar culture.
The Ahar Culture demonstrates the use of a wide variety of raw materials.These include:
Although shell artefacts were manufactured locally, the shell itself probably came from the Gujarat coast, indicating long-distance exchange.Evidence for Harappan contacts includes:
These discoveries indicate connections with Harappan settlements in Gujarat.
Kayatha exhibits several similarities with Early Harappan cultural traditions.
These similarities demonstrate important cultural contacts, although their exact nature remains uncertain.An abrupt break in occupation occurred around 1800 BCE, after which the site remained deserted for approximately one century.When reoccupied, Kayatha represented the Ahar/Banas cultural phase.
Archaeological evidence indicates possible exchange between the Harappan Civilization and Neolithic communities of South India.Although several sites have yielded copper and bronze objects, there is no evidence for local copper smelting, suggesting that these objects may have reached the region through exchange.At Tekkalakota, a pair of gold earrings has been discovered.The Kolar Gold Fields of Karnataka are considered the likely source of gold found in Harappan contexts, suggesting commercial interaction between Harappan urban centres and South Indian Neolithic communities.At Watgal, the discovery of marine shell and shell artefacts indicates exchange with coastal regions, probably along the western coast.
The archaeological evidence from Harappa, Allahdino, Burzahom, Ganeshwar, Balathal, Ahar, Kayatha, Tekkalakota and Watgal demonstrates that the Harappan Civilization developed within an extensive network of interacting regional cultures. Exchange of copper, gold, shells, beads, pottery styles and symbolic motifs connected these communities over large geographical distances, laying the foundations for the emergence of the Mature Harappan urban civilization.
| Site/Culture | Key Importance |
|---|---|
| Harappa (Ravi Phase) | Earliest Harappan phase; formative script evidence |
| Allahdino | Small unfortified Harappan village with planned layout and special buildings |
| Burzahom | Neolithic site showing contact with Early Harappans |
| Ganeshwar | Copper-working centre connected with Harappans |
| Balathal | Agriculture, animal husbandry, storage bins and Harappan contemporaneity |
| Ahar | Trade links with Gujarat Harappan sites |
| Kayatha | Similar pottery and beads indicating Early Harappan interaction |
| Tekkalakota | Gold ornaments indicating long-distance trade |
| Watgal | Marine shell exchange with western coast |
The study of the Harappan Civilization demonstrates both the strengths and limitations of archaeology. Archaeological discoveries have revealed a vast amount of information regarding the civilization, yet many aspects continue to be debated because archaeology depends not only on material evidence but also on its interpretation. Consequently, different scholars have proposed different theories regarding almost every aspect of the Harappan Civilization. While firm conclusions can be drawn on certain issues, many questions remain unresolved due to the present limits of archaeological knowledge.
The Harappan Civilization continues to be the subject of scholarly debate because archaeological evidence often permits multiple interpretations.Different theories exist regarding:
Each theory must be critically examined on the basis of archaeological evidence. In many cases, definitive conclusions are possible, whereas in others scholars must acknowledge the present limitations of available evidence.
The earliest discovered sites of the civilization lay within the Indus River system and its tributaries. For this reason, archaeologists initially referred to it as the Indus Valley Civilization or simply the Indus Civilization.Subsequent archaeological discoveries have revealed that the civilization extended far beyond the Indus Valley, making it one of the largest Bronze Age civilizations in the world.According to the available archaeological evidence:
The Harappan cultural zone covered an estimated area of 680,000–800,000 square kilometres.
Harappan sites have been discovered across a vast geographical area extending over several modern countries and states.
| Direction | Site | Present Location |
|---|---|---|
| Northernmost | Manda | Jammu District, Jammu & Kashmir |
| Southernmost | Malvan | Surat District, Gujarat |
| Westernmost | Sutkagen-dor | Makran Coast, Pakistan |
| Easternmost | Alamgirpur | Saharanpur District, Uttar Pradesh |
| Isolated Site | Shortughai | Afghanistan |
The earliest excavated sites were situated along the Indus River and its tributaries. Consequently, the civilization came to be known as the Indus Valley Civilization.However, later discoveries demonstrated that the civilization extended far beyond the Indus Valley. Therefore, many scholars consider this name geographically restrictive.
Some scholars prefer the terms Indus–Sarasvati Civilization or Sindhu–Sarasvati Civilization because numerous Harappan sites occur along the Ghaggar-Hakra River, which some scholars identify with the ancient Sarasvati River mentioned in the Rig Veda.Nevertheless, these names also face criticism because the civilization was not confined to either the Indus or the Ghaggar-Hakra river systems.
The most appropriate designation is Harappan Civilization.This follows the archaeological convention of naming a culture after the first site where it was identified.The use of the term Harappan Civilizationdoes not imply:
Rather, the name simply reflects archaeological convention.
According to Possehl, the Harappan Civilization should not be regarded as a single homogeneous cultural unit.Instead, it is more appropriate to divide the civilization into several regional sub-divisions, which he refers to as "Domains."This interpretation emphasizes the considerable regional diversity present within the Harappan cultural sphere.
New Harappan sites continue to be discovered through archaeological surveys and excavations.A site is identified as Harappan when a characteristic combination of material remains occurs together.Archaeologists rely upon a checklist of diagnostic archaeological features rather than any single object.
The most important identifying feature is Harappan pottery.Its principal characteristics include:
Harappan sites commonly yield terracotta cakes, generally:
Their exact function remains uncertain.
Harappan settlements generally used bricks following the standardized proportion of:1 : 2 : 4This standardization represents one of the most distinctive features of Harappan architecture.
Characteristic stone and copper tools also form an important part of Harappan material culture.
A site is classified as Harappan only when these characteristic material traits occur together as part of the same archaeological assemblage.
The Harappan Civilization did not emerge suddenly.Instead, it developed gradually through a long and complex cultural process extending over many centuries.This development is divided into three major cultural phases.
| Phase | Nature | Characteristics |
|---|---|---|
| Early Harappan | Formative / Proto-urban Phase | Development of regional cultures and foundations of urbanization |
| Mature Harappan | Urban Phase | Full development of civilization with cities |
| Late Harappan | Post-urban Phase | Decline of urban centres |
Whenever the expression "Harappan Civilization" is used without qualification, it generally refers to the Mature Harappan (Urban) Phase.
Jim Shaffer proposed an alternative terminology for the long cultural sequence.
| Shaffer's Term | Equivalent Phase |
|---|---|
| Regionalization Era | Early Harappan |
| Integration Era | Mature Harappan |
| Localization Era | Late Harappan |
He uses the expression "Indus Valley Tradition" for the long sequence extending from the Neolithic–Chalcolithic period to the decline of the Harappan Civilization.He also treats:
as separate transitional phases.However, for simplicity, the terms:
are generally preferred.
The dating of the Harappan Civilization has undergone significant revision over time.
Before the development of Radiocarbon Dating, Harappan chronology was determined mainly through comparison with Mesopotamia, because the two civilizations maintained contact and Mesopotamian dates were already known.
John Marshall suggested that the Harappan Civilization flourished approximately between:c. 3250–2750 BCE
When Mesopotamian chronology was revised, Harappan dates were also modified.The revised chronology became:c. 2350–2000/1900 BCE
The introduction of Radiocarbon (Carbon-14) Dating during the 1950s provided a much more scientific basis for establishing Harappan chronology.Since then, radiocarbon dates from numerous sites have gradually refined the dating of the civilization.
The excavations conducted at Harappa between 1986 and 1996 yielded:
However:
D. P. Agrawal (1982) proposed:
| Region | Date |
|---|---|
| Core Region | c. 2300–2000 BCE |
| Peripheral Region | c. 2000–1700 BCE |
This chronology was based upon uncalibrated radiocarbon dates.
Recent calibrated Carbon-14 dates indicate that the urban phase of the Harappan Civilization in the:
extended approximately from:c. 2600–1900 BCEThis chronology closely corresponds with the dates previously obtained through comparison with Mesopotamia.Individual site chronologies, however, continue to vary.
| Phase | Chronology |
|---|---|
| Early Harappan | c. 3200–2600 BCE |
| Mature Harappan | c. 2600–1900 BCE |
| Late Harappan | c. 1900–1300 BCE |
This represents the broad chronological framework currently accepted on the basis of calibrated radiocarbon dates.
The origin of the Harappan Civilization has remained one of the most debated subjects in South Asian archaeology. Since the discovery of Harappa and Mohenjodaro, scholars have proposed different explanations regarding how such a highly developed urban civilization emerged. Earlier theories emphasized external influences, whereas modern archaeological research increasingly supports an indigenous developmental process extending over several millennia.The importance of the Early Harappan Phase lies in the fact that it represents the immediate formative stage from which the Mature Harappan urban civilization gradually evolved.
The question of Harappan origins has generated several competing theories. These theories differ mainly on whether the civilization developed independently within the Indian subcontinent or resulted from external migration or diffusion.
In his report on Mohenjodaro, John Marshall argued that the Indus Civilization possessed a long antecedent history within the Indian subcontinent.According to this view, the Harappan Civilization was not a sudden development, but the outcome of a long process of cultural evolution on Indian soil.
Some scholars proposed that the Harappan Civilization originated through migration or cultural diffusion from Mesopotamia (Sumer).
Mackay suggested that a migration of people from Sumer (Southern Mesopotamia) may have resulted in the emergence of the Harappan Civilization.
The migration hypothesis was also supported by:
These scholars believed that external populations contributed significantly to the emergence of Harappan civilization.
Mortimer Wheeler rejected the idea of a migration of people.Instead, he argued for a migration of ideas.According to Wheeler:
Although urban life appeared earlier in Mesopotamia than in Egypt and the Harappan region, this does not prove that the Harappan Civilization developed directly or indirectly from Mesopotamia.Archaeological evidence reveals several important differences between the two civilizations.
| Harappan Civilization | Mesopotamian Civilization |
|---|---|
| Harappan script | Completely different script |
| Comparatively limited use of bronze | Much greater use of bronze |
| Distinct settlement layouts | Different urban planning |
| No evidence of a large-scale canal system | Extensive canal irrigation system |
These differences demonstrate that the Harappan Civilization possessed an independent cultural identity.
Modern archaeological research generally rejects the idea that the Harappan Civilization was merely an offshoot of Mesopotamia.Instead, the civilization is now understood as the result of a long indigenous developmental process beginning with the emergence of settled agricultural communities in Baluchistan during the seventh millennium BCE.The immediate precursor of the Mature Harappan Civilization was the Early Harappan Phase, which earlier archaeologists referred to as the Pre-Harappan Phase.
The Early Harappan Phase represents the formative or proto-urban stage of the civilization.Its importance lies not merely in serving as a stepping stone toward urbanization but also in representing a distinctive cultural stage with its own technological, economic and social developments.The Early Harappan period is generally dated between:c. 3200–2600 BCEAlthough the dates vary slightly from site to site.
Amalananda Ghosh (1965) was the first archaeologist to identify similarities between the Pre-Harappan and Mature Harappan cultures.He focused particularly on the Sothi Culture of Rajasthan.
According to Ghosh, Sothi pottery resembled pottery found at:
On the basis of these ceramic similarities, Ghosh argued that the Sothi Culture should be regarded as Proto-Harappan.
Despite its importance, Ghosh's interpretation had important limitations.His conclusions were based almost entirely on pottery comparisons.The theory did not adequately consider:
As a result, it overemphasized ceramic similarities while overlooking many important differences between the Sothi and Harappan cultures.
The first comprehensive study of the relationship between the Early Harappan and Mature Harappan phases was undertaken by M. R. Mughal (1977).Unlike earlier scholars, Mughal compared the entire range of archaeological evidence, including:
This broader approach enabled a more comprehensive understanding of Harappan origins.
According to Mughal, Early Harappan settlements already possessed many of the characteristics later associated with the Mature Harappan Civilization.These included:
Many settlements were already protected by fortification walls, indicating organized communities.
The Early Harappans demonstrated considerable expertise in:
These craft traditions later expanded further during the Mature Harappan period.
Evidence indicates the use of wheeled transport, reflecting advances in communication and trade.
Well-developed exchange networks already connected Early Harappan communities.
The range of raw materials employed during the Early Harappan period was almost identical to that used later by the Mature Harappans.The only important exception noted by Mughal was:
According to Mughal, only two major features were lacking in the Early Harappan period.These were:
Apart from these differences, considerable continuity existed between the two phases.
On the basis of this evidence, Mughal argued that the expression "Pre-Harappan" was misleading.Instead, he proposed that the term:"Early Harappan"should be adopted because this phase represented the formative stage of Harappan Civilization itself, rather than an unrelated culture preceding it.This interpretation is now widely accepted.
Early Harappan levels have been identified at many archaeological sites.At some sites:
At others:
Although site-specific dates vary, the general chronological range remains:c. 3200–2600 BCEThese settlements demonstrate that urban civilization emerged gradually from earlier regional communities rather than appearing suddenly.
Settled Farming Communities
(Baluchistan, 7th Millennium BCE)
│
▼
Early Harappan Phase
(c. 3200–2600 BCE)
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▼
Mature Harappan Phase
(c. 2600–1900 BCE)
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▼
Late Harappan Phase
(c. 1900–1300 BCE)This sequence reflects the gradual transformation from early agricultural settlements into one of the world's earliest urban civilizations.
The Early Harappan Phase (c. 3200–2600 BCE) is represented by a large number of archaeological sites distributed across the greater Indus region. Some of these settlements represent the earliest occupation at their respective sites, while others form part of a continuous cultural sequence extending into the Mature Harappan period.These sites demonstrate that the Harappan Civilization evolved gradually through increasing settlement planning, fortification, craft specialization, agriculture, trade, and technological advancement.
Location:Coastal plain of Sonmiani Bay, Makran CoastCultural Phase:Period II – Early HarappanBalakot represents one of the important Early Harappan settlements situated along the Makran coast. Its archaeological evidence indicates a mixed economy based on agriculture, animal husbandry, craft production and coastal exchange.
The pottery was:
Excavations yielded:
Plant remains include:
Bones identified include:
Balakot demonstrates the importance of coastal settlements within the Early Harappan cultural network.
Location:Khozdar Area, BaluchistanNal-related settlements represent the Early Harappan Phase in the southern Indus Valley and Baluchistan.The pottery tradition of Nal influenced several Early Harappan settlements, including Balakot, where pottery resembling Nal Polychrome Ware has been discovered.Nal forms one of the important regional traditions contributing to the development of the Harappan Civilization.
Location:Sindh, approximately 2 km from the right bank of the Indus RiverThe settlement at Amri dates back to approximately 3500 BCE.Its cultural sequence consists of:
This sequence clearly illustrates the gradual transition from the Early to the Mature Harappan Civilization.
During Period I, there was:
Excavations yielded:
Period IC is particularly significant because it contains:
Pottery characteristics include:
Colours used include:
Location: Approximately 160 km north-east of Amri, situated on the left bank of an old flood channel of the IndusKot Diji represents one of the most important Early Harappan sites because it preserves both:
levels separated by a burnt deposit.The Early Harappan Phase (Period I) dates from approximately 3300 BCE.
The settlement was surrounded by a massive fortification wall constructed of:
The settlement consisted of:
The upper levels yielded houses built with:
Important discoveries include:
The pottery of Period I shows remarkable diversity.Characteristics include:
The most distinctive vessel is the:Short-necked ovoid potDecorated with motifs such as:
Artefacts similar to those from Kot Diji have been found at many other Early Harappan sites.Consequently, archaeological levels possessing similar material culture are collectively referred to as:Kot Dijian
By Period VII, Mehrgarh exhibits several features indicating increasing interaction with the Indus Valley.Important discoveries include:
These discoveries suggest growing cultural links with the Indus region.However, these contacts do not constitute full Harappan influence, indicating that Mehrgarh retained its own regional identity.
Located near Mehrgarh, Nausharo provides one of the clearest archaeological sequences showing cultural continuity.The site preserves successive phases:
The pottery of Period IC resembles that of Mehrgarh Period VIIC.According to Jarrige, these phases are contemporaneous and date approximately to:c. 2600–2550 BCENausharo therefore illustrates the gradual transformation from Early to Mature Harappan culture.
Location:Gomal ValleyGumla contains several occupational phases.
New pottery styles appeared, including:
Dominated by:
Represents the:Mature Harappan PhaseThus, Gumla clearly demonstrates cultural continuity between the Early and Mature Harappan periods.
Location:Gomal ValleyRehman Dheri is among the most important Early Harappan urban settlements.
Earliest levels:c. 3380–3040 BCE
Approximately:20 hectares
Aerial photographs reveal:
The settlement was enclosed by:
Shows:
Excavations yielded:
Beads made of:
indicate exchange with:
Plant remains:
Bones recovered include:
Location:Bannu BasinThe Early Harappan settlement at Lewan may date to the early third millennium BCE.Apart from a habitation area, excavations revealed an enormous industrial zone measuring approximately:450 × 325 metres
Large quantities of stone tools were discovered at different stages of manufacture.These include:
Mostly:
The evidence clearly identifies Lewan as a major stone tool manufacturing centre.Beads and bead-making materials were also recovered from part of this industrial area.
Excavations indicate a well-developed agricultural economy.
Stone blades display the characteristic sickle sheen, indicating their use for harvesting grain.
Bones recovered include:
Location:Northern Punjab Province (Pakistan)Period II represents the Early Harappan Phase.
Within this phase, houses evolved from:
to
Dominated by:
Copper artefacts include:
Recent excavations demonstrate that:
More than:25 hectares
The settlement was divided into:
Street layout and house planning indicate organized urban planning.
Discoveries include:
Craftspeople used a wide variety of raw materials.
Included pottery resembling:
The site yielded:
Several artefacts continued into the Mature Harappan period, including:
This continuity demonstrates the gradual evolution of Mature Harappan culture.
Following the Hakra Ware Phase, the next major cultural phase is the:Kot Dijian (Early Harappan) PhaseThe Cholistan region contains the largest concentration of Kot Dijian settlements.
A significant transformation occurred:
Camp sites decreased dramatically:
Many settlements possessed:
indicating increasing craft specialization.
Approximately:
Large settlements include:
| Site | Area |
|---|---|
| Jalwali | 22.5 ha |
| Gamanwala | 27.3 ha |
Location:Banks of the Ghaggar RiverChronology:c. 2920–2550 BCE (calibrated radiocarbon dates)
Approximately:4 hectaresFortified by:
Houses were built of:
They were arranged around:
Standard brick ratio:3 : 2 : 1
Houses contained:
The pottery exhibits considerable diversity.Characteristics include:
Motifs include:
Some graffiti resemble the script of the Mature Harappan Civilization.
One of the most remarkable discoveries south of the settlement was a ploughed field surface, preserving north–south and east–west furrow marks created by an ancient plough.This constitutes one of the most significant pieces of archaeological evidence for early agricultural practices.
The Early Harappan sites reveal the gradual emergence of planned settlements, fortifications, specialized crafts, regional trade networks, agriculture, administrative practices, and symbolic traditions that collectively laid the foundation for the fully developed Mature Harappan Civilization. Continuous cultural evolution from sites such as Amri, Kot Diji, Rehman Dheri, Harappa, and Kalibangan demonstrates that urbanization was a long and gradual historical process rather than a sudden event.
The Indo-Gangetic divide and Gujarat contain several important Early Harappan settlements that demonstrate the gradual transformation of regional cultures into the fully developed Mature Harappan Civilization. Archaeological evidence from these sites reveals increasing settlement planning, standardized architecture, craft specialization, administrative practices, wealth accumulation, and the emergence of common religious and symbolic traditions. Together, these developments illustrate the process of cultural convergence, which eventually produced a remarkably uniform urban civilization across a vast geographical area.
Several important Early Harappan settlements have been identified in the Indo-Gangetic divide, especially in present-day Haryana. Among the most significant are Kunal, Banawali, and Rakhigarhi, where the Early Harappan phase is directly succeeded by the Mature Harappan phase, providing valuable evidence for cultural continuity.
Kunal preserves a continuous cultural sequence from the Hakra Ware Phase to the Mature Harappan Civilization, making it one of the most significant sites for understanding the evolution of Harappan culture.
| Period | Cultural Phase |
|---|---|
| Period IA | Hakra Ware Phase |
| Period IB | Early Harappan |
| Period IC | Transitional Phase (Early → Mature Harappan) |
The earliest occupation belongs to the Hakra Ware Culture, representing the pre-urban stage of settlement.
This phase shows continuity with the earlier Hakra tradition while introducing distinctly Harappan features.Important developments include:
These discoveries indicate increasing interaction with other Early Harappan centres.
The transitional phase marks the gradual emergence of Mature Harappan characteristics.
The earlier below-ground houses were replaced by ground-level houses constructed with standardized mud-bricks.Standard brick ratios include:
This demonstrates increasing architectural standardization.
Excavations yielded:
These seals bear geometric patterns, indicating the emergence of administrative or commercial practices.
One of the most remarkable discoveries at Kunal consists of large hoards of jewellery recovered from houses.These include:
The concentration of such valuable objects suggests:
During the Early Harappan period, Banawali consisted primarily of mud-brick houses.
The houses contained:
These features indicate organized domestic activity and food storage.
The pottery closely resembles that of Kalibangan Period I, demonstrating strong cultural links.
Excavations yielded:
These finds indicate increasing craft specialization and exchange networks.
Early Harappan settlements have also been identified nearby along the Ghaggar-Hakra system at:
These settlements collectively demonstrate the widespread distribution of Early Harappan culture in north-western India.
Rakhigarhi provides important evidence for the emergence of planned settlements during the Early Harappan period.
Excavations indicate:
showing organized urban planning even before the Mature Harappan phase.
The pottery assemblage closely resembles that of Kalibangan Period I.
Important discoveries include:
These discoveries indicate increasing technological sophistication and administrative development.
Large quantities of animal bones recovered during excavation indicate the importance of animal husbandry in the economy.
A remarkable discovery consists of a stacked set of hopscotches found behind a structural complex.This suggests that a game similar to the modern Pithu, still popular among children in India and Pakistan, may have originated during the Early Harappan period.
Bhirrana, situated in Fatehabad District (Haryana), provides valuable evidence regarding the gradual emergence of Harappan Civilization.
| Period | Phase |
|---|---|
| IA | Hakra Ware Culture |
| IB | Early Harappan |
| IIA | Early Mature Harappan |
| IIB | Mature Harappan |
This sequence clearly illustrates continuous cultural development.
Structures were built using mud-bricks in the ratio:1 : 2 : 3A large house complex consisted of:
Several ceramic traditions occur together:
This demonstrates continuity alongside innovation.
Excavations produced a rich assemblage including:
These finds demonstrate advanced craftsmanship and diverse domestic activities.
The Early Harappan cultural horizon also spread into Saurashtra and Kutch, indicating the westward expansion of Harappan traditions.
Excavations at Padri demonstrate the presence of a well-developed Early Harappan horizon in Gujarat.The site later becomes important because evidence suggests that symbols resembling Harappan writing occur in the Early Harappan phase.
Kuntasi also represents a significant Early Harappan settlement of Saurashtra, demonstrating that Gujarat had already become integrated into the Harappan cultural sphere before the Mature phase.
The famous site of Dholavira, situated in the Rann of Kutch, also possesses Early Harappan levels.
The settlement was enclosed by an impressive fortification wall constructed of:
Buildings were made using standardized mud-bricks in the proportion:1 : 2 : 4
The pottery assemblage includes:
Excavations yielded:
These discoveries demonstrate that many characteristic Mature Harappan features had already appeared during the Early Harappan phase.
Archaeological evidence clearly demonstrates substantial continuity between the Early and Mature Harappan periods.Nevertheless, some scholars continue to argue for varying degrees of external influence, especially from Mesopotamia.
Some archaeologists continue to emphasize possible connections with western Asia.
Suggested that an early urban interaction sphere extending across:
played an important role in the emergence of Harappan urbanism.
Argued that Indus–Mesopotamian trade significantly influenced both:
However, these interpretations remain difficult to establish conclusively because substantial archaeological evidence is lacking.
One of the most important developments during the Early Harappan period was the gradual movement from diverse regional traditions toward increasing cultural uniformity.Allchin and Allchin describe this process as:"Cultural Convergence."This process resulted in the emergence of common cultural features across different regions.
Several archaeological developments illustrate this growing integration.
The presence of specialized industries implies:
The expansion of exchange networks implies the presence of:
Planned settlements indicate:
Seals recovered from:
may have belonged to traders or elite groups.
Jewellery hoards at Kunal, including silver tiaras, indicate:
Symbols resembling the Harappan script occur at:
These discoveries demonstrate that the roots of the Harappan writing system extend back into the Early Harappan period.
Another significant aspect of cultural convergence is the widespread appearance of the Horned Deity.Evidence includes:
At Kalibangan, the opposite side of the terracotta cake bears the figure of a tied animal, suggesting symbolic or ritual significance.The repeated appearance of this figure across different regions indicates increasing uniformity in religious and symbolic traditions.
The transformation from the proto-urban Early Harappan phase to the fully urban Mature Harappan Civilization remains one of archaeology's most important unanswered questions.Several possible explanations have been proposed.Some scholars emphasize:
However, the importance of Mesopotamian trade has probably been overstated.
According to Chakrabarti, the transition toward urbanization may have been stimulated by:
He also suggests that agricultural expansion within the Indus floodplain may have depended upon an organized irrigation system.However, direct archaeological evidence for such irrigation remains unavailable.
The emergence of the Mature Harappan Civilization may also have involved:
At present, archaeology does not provide sufficient evidence to determine which of these factors was most important.
The archaeological evidence from Kunal, Banawali, Rakhigarhi, Bhirrana, Padri, Kuntasi, and Early Dholavira demonstrates that the Early Harappan Phase witnessed increasing settlement planning, standardized architecture, craft specialization, wealth accumulation, trade, administrative practices, writing, and shared religious symbols. These developments reflect a process of cultural convergence, gradually transforming diverse regional cultures into the unified Mature Harappan Civilization.(Continued in Part 8: Archaeological Gaps, Settlement Hierarchy, Urban Planning, Building Materials, Brick Technology, Houses, Bathrooms, Toilets, Drainage System, and Water Management.)
Although archaeological evidence demonstrates a strong continuity between the Early and Mature Harappan phases, several important questions regarding this transition remain unanswered. The Mature Harappan Civilization was characterized by planned settlements, standardized architecture, advanced drainage systems, well-developed water management, and a hierarchy of settlements ranging from large cities to small villages and pastoral camps. At the same time, archaeological evidence also reveals significant regional diversity in planning and construction techniques.
Despite substantial evidence of continuity, several gaps remain in our understanding of the relationship between the Early and Mature Harappan phases.One major limitation is the inadequate information regarding the earliest occupational levels at important sites such as Mohenjodaro and Harappa, making it difficult to reconstruct the complete process of urban development.Another important observation is that several Mature Harappan sites do not possess Early Harappan levels, indicating that many settlements emerged directly during the urban phase.These include:
Similarly, many Early Harappan settlements did not continue into the Mature Harappan phase.In the Potwar Plateau, several Early Harappan sites have no Mature Harappan occupation.In Cholistan, only three Early Harappan settlements continued into the Mature Harappan phase:
Another important gap is the absence of Early Harappan settlements in the active Indus plain.Even where both cultural phases occur at the same site, the transition was not always smooth.At Kot Diji and Gumla, a burnt deposit separates the Early and Mature Harappan phases, suggesting a major fire.Evidence of burning has also been found at:
At Kalibangan, the interruption in occupation has been attributed to a possible earthquake.These discontinuities indicate that the emergence of the Mature Harappan Civilization was not uniform throughout its geographical extent.
Although the Harappan Civilization is described as an urban civilization, this does not imply that all settlements were cities.In reality, the majority of Harappan settlements were villages.The relationship between towns and villages was based upon economic interdependence.The villages supplied:
The cities supplied:
Because of this close urban-rural interaction, even small villages contain the characteristic range of Harappan artefacts.
Harappan settlements varied enormously in size, population, and function, extending from very large urban centres to small pastoral camps.
| Site | Approximate Area |
|---|---|
| Mohenjodaro | Over 200 ha |
| Harappa | Over 150 ha |
| Ganweriwala | Over 81.5 ha |
| Rakhigarhi | Over 80 ha |
| Dholavira | About 100 ha |
Another major urban centre was:Lurewala (Cholistan)Its estimated population was approximately 35,000, making it comparable in size to Mohenjodaro.
These include:
Large settlements recently reported include:
| Site | Area |
|---|---|
| Dhalewan | About 150 ha |
| Gurni Kalan I | 144 ha |
| Hasanpur II | About 100 ha |
| Lakhmirwala | 225 ha |
| Baglian Da Theh | About 100 ha |
However, archaeological details of these settlements remain limited.
Examples include:
Examples include:
Examples include:
Even smaller settlements also existed across the Harappan cultural zone.
One of the defining characteristics of the Mature Harappan Civilization is its carefully planned settlements.Earlier scholars believed Harappan towns were arranged in a perfect north-south and east-west grid.However, archaeological evidence demonstrates that this was not completely accurate.Even at Mohenjodaro, roads are not perfectly straight and do not always intersect at right angles.Nevertheless, the settlements clearly exhibit deliberate planning.
The degree of planning was not directly related to settlement size.For example:
This demonstrates that planning depended upon local requirements rather than settlement size alone.
Different Harappan cities followed different layouts.
These settlements contain:
The citadel was not separate, but situated within the main settlement.
Dholavira represents the most elaborate plan.It consisted of:
This three-fold division distinguishes Dholavira from other Harappan settlements.
Construction techniques varied according to local environmental conditions.
Village houses were generally built using:
Stone was occasionally used:
Urban buildings generally used:
In these rocky regions, there was extensive use of stone.The most distinctive example is Dholavira, where:
represent architectural features not found elsewhere in the Harappan world.
The quality of Harappan brick construction is demonstrated by the remarkable preservation of buildings.At Mohenjodaro, some walls still survive to a height of approximately 5 metres.
One important method of brick laying is known as the English Bond Style.Bricks were laid alternately as:
Successive rows alternated these arrangements.This technique greatly increased the strength of walls.
Harappan brick sizes show remarkable uniformity.
7 × 14 × 28 cm
10 × 20 × 40 cmBoth maintain the standard ratio:1 : 2 : 4This ratio first appears at certain Early Harappan sites but becomes universal during the Mature Harappan phase.
Doors and windows were generally constructed of:
Clay models indicate that doors were sometimes:
Windows possessed:
These features allowed adequate:
Carved alabaster and marble lattice slabs recovered from Harappa and Mohenjodaro may have been fitted into brick walls.
Large houses often contained:
Archaeological evidence also indicates repeated renovation of houses over time.Small houses attached to larger residences may have been occupied by service groups working for wealthy households.
The Harappans attached great importance to bathing.Many houses or groups of houses possessed:
Bathing platforms were commonly located beside wells.The bathing floors consisted of:
Wastewater flowed through a small drain that pierced the house wall and eventually joined the street drainage system.
Evidence of toilets has been discovered at many Harappan settlements.These ranged from:
Recent excavations at Harappa revealed toilets in almost every house.
The commodes consisted of:
Many were associated with a:
probably used for washing.Most toilet pots possessed:
allowing water to seep gradually into the ground.In some houses, waste water flowed through:
The existence of such facilities suggests that certain individuals were responsible for cleaning drains and toilets.
The drainage system represents one of the greatest engineering achievements of the Harappan Civilization.Even relatively small settlements possessed sophisticated drainage arrangements.
Different drainage systems existed for:
Water chutes from upper floors were often concealed within walls before emerging above the street drains.
At Harappa and Mohenjodaro:
carried wastewater into larger street drains.These ultimately discharged outside the city walls into surrounding fields.
Main drains were covered by:
Rectangular soak pits occurred at regular intervals.These collected solid waste and required periodic cleaning.Without such maintenance, the drainage system would have become blocked and posed serious health hazards.
The Harappans developed highly efficient systems for supplying water.Their emphasis on bathing indicates great concern for:
Water was obtained from:
Mohenjodaro is famous for its large number of wells, supplying water to individual households.
Harappa possessed comparatively fewer wells.However, a large depression in the centre of the city may have served as:
for the inhabitants.
Dholavira is especially noted for its:
Although a few wells existed, water storage depended primarily upon these impressive reservoirs.
Only a very small proportion of known Harappan settlements has been excavated.Even where excavations have taken place, only limited portions of settlements have been exposed.Consequently, our understanding of Harappan urbanism continues to evolve as new archaeological investigations are undertaken.
The Mature Harappan Civilization possessed a well-developed hierarchy of settlements ranging from large cities to small villages. Despite regional differences in layout and construction, Harappan settlements exhibit remarkable standards of town planning, standardized brick architecture, residential organization, sanitation, drainage engineering, and water management. At the same time, archaeological evidence reveals several unresolved questions regarding the transition from the Early to the Mature Harappan phases.(Continued in Part 9: Mohenjodaro, Harappa, Kalibangan, Banawali, Bhirrana, Lothal, Dholavira, Allahdino, Great Bath, Citadel Architecture, Fire Altars, Warehouse, and Public Buildings.)
Only a small proportion of the identified Harappan sites has been excavated, and even at excavated sites only selected portions have been exposed. Nevertheless, archaeological investigations have revealed detailed information regarding the layout, public architecture, citadel complexes, craft areas, ritual structures, and urban planning of several important Mature Harappan settlements such as Mohenjodaro, Harappa, Kalibangan, Banawali, Bhirrana, Lothal, Dholavira, and Allahdino.
Mohenjodaro is situated in Sindh, approximately 5 km from the Indus River, although during the Harappan period the river probably flowed much closer to the settlement.
The site covers an estimated area of approximately 200 hectares.It consists of:
Based on the density of residential buildings, Fairservis (1967) estimated that the Lower Town may have accommodated approximately 41,250 inhabitants.
The monumental structures situated on the citadel represent some of the finest examples of Harappan architecture.Major structures include:
The Great Bath is one of the greatest engineering achievements of the Harappan Civilization and represents one of the earliest known examples of sophisticated waterproof construction.
The tank was constructed using:
The sides of the tank were coated with a thick layer of bitumen, making it one of the earliest examples of waterproofing in the world.
A broad staircase descended into the tank from both:
The floor sloped gently towards the south-western corner, where:
which carried water outside the mound.
Brick colonnades were identified along:
A similar colonnade probably existed on the western side.The complex possessed:
Along the eastern side was a series of rooms.One room contained:
which probably supplied water to the Great Bath.Immediately north of the Great Bath stood a large structure consisting of:
Harappa occupies an area of approximately 150 hectares.The Ravi River presently flows around 10 km from the site.
Harappa consists of:
South of the citadel lies a Mature Harappan cemetery.
The citadel was approximately:
It was roughly:
The citadel was enclosed by:
Structures within the citadel stood upon:
Because of severe damage to the mound, the architectural layout is less clearly preserved than at Mohenjodaro.
Excavations are presently focused upon the lower fortified town.
Inside the southern gateway lies a large open area.This may have functioned as:
Several specialized workshops have been identified.These produced:
Outside the southern gateway archaeologists discovered:
This area may have served as a resting place for travellers and traders.
Kalibangan is situated on the dry bed of the Ghaggar River in Hanumangarh District, Rajasthan.Its name literally means:"Black Bangles"because large quantities of black bangles were scattered across the site.
The settlement has a perimeter of approximately 1–3 km.It consists of:
Contains:
occupational levels.
Represents only the:
A third mound contains:
Both:
were fortified.
The western mound was divided into:
by an inner wall.Staircases provided access between these sectors.
The southern portion contained:
Instead, it consisted of:
Nearby were:
The clay-plastered pits have been interpreted as:Fire AltarsThese may have been:
Buildings in the northern sector appear to have been:
possibly occupied by individuals associated with ritual activities.
Approximately 200 metres west-south-west of the citadel lies a burial ground.Burial types include:
Containing complete human skeletons.
Containing:
No human remains were found in these circular pits.
Situated in Hissar District (Haryana) near the dry bed of the Rangoi River.
Approximately:300 × 500 metres
Banawali contains:
occupations.
The fortified settlement was divided into:
The citadel was:
Within the citadel archaeologists identified:
A ramp connected the citadel with the lower town.
Mud-brick houses possessed:
outside the houses.Burnt bricks were used only for:
One large multi-roomed house contained:
Large numbers of:
were recovered.The house probably belonged to a wealthy merchant.
Another large house yielded:
This house probably belonged to a jeweller.
Interestingly:
Large numbers of:
were discovered.
Excavations yielded:
Several houses also contained:
One altar was associated with an:
which may have possessed ritual significance.
Early Mature Harappan
Mature Harappan
The settlement was enclosed by a:
Three large residential complexes have been exposed.
Contained:
Separated by a lane.One house consisted of:
Terracotta cakes mixed with:
were found on the floors.
Contained:
The floors were paved with:
Walls were:
The houses contained:
Charred bones and the skull of a bovine animal were recovered near one of the chullahs.
A major street:
ran north-south along the fortification.Three smaller lanes were also identified.
Important discoveries include:
The posture of this figure resembles the famous:Bronze Dancing Girl of Mohenjodaro
Situated between:
in Saurashtra (Gujarat).During Harappan times boats from the Gulf of Cambay could probably sail directly to the settlement.
Dimensions:280 × 225 metresRectangular in plan.The settlement was enclosed by:
Main entrance:
Situated:
The excavator S. R. Rao described the elevated southern platform as the:AcropolisThe citadel was:
Excavations revealed:
South of the residential quarter lay a large building identified as a:WarehouseIt probably served for:
Sixty-five terracotta sealings were discovered.These preserve impressions of:
One side bears:
Situated on:Kadir Islandin the Rann of Kutch.During Harappan times the higher water level probably enabled boats to reach the settlement directly.
Dholavira is unique for its extensive use of:
Constructed using:
with:
The settlement consisted of:
Each major section possessed its own enclosing wall.
Between the castle-bailey complex and the middle town lay a large open area interpreted as a:StadiumThis may have served:
Substantial habitation also existed:
forming a possible suburb.
Because of its geographical position, Dholavira probably functioned as:
Approximately 40 km east of Karachi
A very small settlement:Approximately:1.4 hectaresUnlike many Harappan settlements:
Houses were built of:
Orientation:West-south-west → East-north-east
Excavations revealed:
The wells had:
This narrow opening probably increased:
making groundwater rise higher.It has been suggested that well water was used:
Important discoveries include:
One of the most spectacular discoveries was a terracotta jar containing:
Important pieces include:
These discoveries demonstrate that some inhabitants of this small Harappan village possessed considerable wealth.
The major Mature Harappan settlements reveal highly developed urban planning, fortified citadels, public architecture, craft specialization, merchant and artisan quarters, ritual structures, warehouses, water management systems, and administrative activities. Although the layouts differ from site to site, all major centres exhibit advanced planning and reflect the organizational capacity of the Mature Harappan Civilization.(Continued in Part 10: Harappan Economy, Agriculture, Environment, Climate Debate, Crops, Plant Economy, Animal Husbandry and Subsistence.)
The Harappan Civilization extended across a vast geographical region comprising alluvial plains, river valleys, mountains, plateaux, deserts, and sea coasts. This ecological diversity provided a rich resource base capable of sustaining one of the world's earliest urban civilizations. The Harappan economy was primarily based on agriculture, supplemented by animal husbandry, hunting, and the exploitation of riverine and marine resources. Information regarding the Harappan subsistence economy is reconstructed through plant remains, animal bones, archaeological artefacts, motifs on seals and pottery, and comparisons with traditional agricultural practices.
The Harappan Civilization flourished over an enormous geographical area possessing considerable environmental diversity. Different ecological zones supplied different resources, ensuring that shortages in one region could be compensated by resources available elsewhere.The availability of fertile agricultural land generated the food surplus necessary for urbanization, while ecological diversity contributed to the long-term stability of the civilization.
The Harappan economy rested upon multiple complementary activities.The principal components included:
The combination of these economic activities ensured a diversified subsistence system.
The reconstruction of Harappan subsistence patterns is based on several categories of archaeological evidence.These include:
Together, these sources provide valuable insights into Harappan food production and resource utilization.
The nature of Harappan subsistence was closely connected with the surrounding environment. Consequently, the climatic conditions prevailing during the Harappan period have remained an important subject of archaeological debate.
Archaeologists such as Mortimer Wheeler and Stuart Piggott argued that climatic conditions during the Harappan period were wetter than today.Their interpretation was based on four principal arguments.
The large number of burnt bricks recovered from Harappan settlements would have required enormous quantities of fuel.According to this view:
would have been necessary to sustain such large-scale brick production.
The presence of gabarbands (embankments) in Baluchistan was interpreted as evidence of heavier rainfall.
Harappan seals depict animals such as:
These animals generally inhabit forested and grassland environments, suggesting higher rainfall and denser vegetation.
The highly developed drainage systems of Harappan cities were interpreted as mechanisms designed to remove heavy rainwater.
The first and fourth arguments have been questioned.
It is difficult to estimate the precise quantity of wood required for brick production.Therefore, the existence of large numbers of burnt bricks cannot conclusively demonstrate extensive forests.
The Harappan drainage network primarily functioned as a:
rather than as a mechanism for removing rainwater.Consequently, its existence does not necessarily imply a wetter climate.
Many scholars maintain that climatic conditions in the Greater Indus Valley have remained broadly similar since Harappan times.According to this interpretation, major climatic changes cannot be invoked to explain the rise or decline of the civilization.
Plant palynologist Gurdip Singh (1971) analysed pollen from four Rajasthan lakes:
Using these pollen records, he reconstructed rainfall patterns from approximately 8000 BCE to 1500 BCE.
He proposed:
These conclusions suggested that climatic change may have influenced Harappan development.
A later study of Lunkaransar Lake by Enzel et al. (1999) reached a different conclusion.According to this study:
Consequently, the precise nature of Harappan climatic conditions remains unresolved, and no single explanation has gained universal acceptance.
Agriculture formed the economic foundation of the Harappan Civilization.Because the civilization covered an enormous geographical area, farmers cultivated different crops in different ecological regions.
Evidence recovered from:
Recovered from:
Recovered from:
Evidence obtained from:
Identified at:
Harappa has yielded evidence of:
The Harappans also knew:
There is evidence suggesting the cultivation of:
The most detailed evidence regarding Harappan agriculture comes from Balu (Haryana).Both Early and Mature Harappan levels have yielded exceptionally rich botanical remains.
Recovered crops include:
Evidence includes:
Evidence includes:
Balu has yielded the earliest archaeological evidence of garlic.
The discoveries at Balu demonstrate that Harappan agriculture was remarkably diversified.The Harappans cultivated:
Another striking feature is the remarkable similarity between the ancient and present-day agricultural patterns in many parts of north-western India.
Agriculture varied according to regional environmental conditions.Different ecological zones specialized in different crops, ensuring:
This regional diversification formed one of the strengths of the Harappan economy.
Agriculture generated the food surplus required to support:
Thus, agricultural productivity formed the essential economic basis for Harappan urban civilization.
Animal husbandry constituted the second major pillar of the Harappan economy.Along with agriculture, it ensured a stable and diversified food supply.The importance of domesticated animals is reflected through the large quantities of animal bones recovered from Harappan settlements.Animal husbandry supplemented agriculture and strengthened the subsistence economy across different ecological regions.
Although agriculture and domesticated animals formed the principal economic base, hunting continued to supplement food resources.Wild animals formed only a part of the overall subsistence economy, indicating that hunting remained secondary to farming and animal husbandry.
Where geographical conditions permitted, Harappan communities also exploited:
Fishing and the utilization of aquatic resources supplemented agricultural production and added further diversity to the Harappan economy.
One of the greatest strengths of the Harappan Civilization was its ability to adapt agricultural and subsistence practices to widely differing ecological conditions.The civilization extended across:
Different regions specialized in different agricultural and subsistence activities while remaining integrated within the broader Harappan cultural sphere.
The economic structure of the Harappan Civilization may be summarized as follows:
The Harappan economy was built upon a diversified subsistence system combining agriculture, animal husbandry, hunting, and the utilization of riverine and marine resources. Agriculture formed the foundation of urban life, while ecological diversity enabled different regions to cultivate different crops. Although the exact climatic conditions of the Harappan period remain debated, archaeological evidence demonstrates a highly productive agricultural system capable of supporting one of the earliest urban civilizations in the world.
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Agriculture formed the economic backbone of the Harappan Civilization. Modern agricultural practices in north-western India and Pakistan provide useful clues for understanding protohistoric cultivation patterns. Although climatic and environmental conditions have changed over time, several traditional farming practices appear to have continued from Harappan times.The Harappans cultivated both Kharif (summer) and Rabi (winter) crops according to regional ecological conditions. Agriculture was supported by fertile alluvial soils, seasonal floods, local irrigation arrangements, and diversified cropping patterns.
In Sindh, rainfall was naturally low. However, the Indus River annually deposited fertile silt during floods, making agriculture highly productive.The fertile floodplain required:
This natural fertility enabled intensive cultivation with relatively simple agricultural techniques.
The principal summer crops included:
These were probably:
The principal winter crops included:
These were probably:
In Gujarat, rice was cultivated as an important Kharif crop, indicating regional adaptation of agriculture according to climatic and environmental conditions.
One of the strongest archaeological proofs of Harappan agriculture comes from the ploughed field discovered at Early Harappan Kalibangan.The preserved furrows demonstrate that organized plough cultivation was already practised before the Mature Harappan phase.The continued use of the plough during the Mature Harappan period is indicated by several additional discoveries.
Important archaeological evidence includes:
No actual ploughs have survived because they were almost certainly made of wood, a perishable material.
Although direct evidence of large-scale irrigation remains limited, archaeological evidence suggests that Harappans employed several methods to manage water for agriculture.
Farmers probably constructed bunds made of mud or stone to divert river water towards agricultural fields.Such practices closely resemble traditional methods still followed in parts of Baluchistan.
The clearest evidence of canal irrigation comes from:
Excavations have revealed the existence of irrigation canals, indicating organized water management.
Fairservis suggested that:
at Allahdino formed part of an irrigation system.However, this interpretation remains inconclusive.
Leshnik proposed that the famous dockyard of Lothal was actually an irrigation reservoir.This interpretation has not been widely accepted.
Even if canals existed extensively in the Indus plains, identifying them archaeologically is extremely difficult.However:H. P. Francfort (1992) identified remains of:
Some ancient canals traced in the Ghaggar-Hakra plain may also belong to the Harappan period.
Although agriculture formed the principal economic activity, hunting continued to supplement food resources.Bones of numerous wild animals have been recovered from Harappan sites.
Archaeological evidence includes:
Rhinoceros bones have been found only at Amri, although the animal frequently appears on:
Bones occur only in very small quantities, despite the elephant being depicted on Harappan seals.
Represented through figurines and painted pottery:
The Harappans efficiently exploited aquatic resources wherever geographical conditions permitted.
At coastal settlements, molluscs formed an important protein-rich component of the diet.
The discovery of marine catfish bones at Harappa, located far inland, suggests that:
Animal husbandry formed the second major pillar of the Harappan economy.Excavations have yielded remains of several domesticated species.
These included:
Cattle and buffaloes were the most important domesticated animals.They were used for:
Sheep and goats provided:
They also served as pack animals, similar to their use in Himalayan regions even today.
Terracotta figurines indicate that dogs had been domesticated.
One of the most debated issues in Harappan archaeology concerns the presence of the horse.The controversy centres on two issues:
It is often difficult to determine whether the bones belong to:
or
Horse bones have been reported from:
After examining equid bones from Surkotada, Sàndor Bökönyi concluded that:
The conclusions of Bökönyi were challenged by:
Brigadier Ross (1946) reported horse teeth from pre-Harappan Rana Ghundai.However, Zeuner (1963) questioned this identification.
Horse remains:
Shikarpur, located in Kutch district (Gujarat), was excavated by the Gujarat State Department of Archaeology (1987–1990).The excavation exposed:
Animal bones were studied at the:Archaeozoology Laboratory, Deccan College, PuneResearchers included:
More than 85% of all recovered animal bones belonged to domesticated animals in both Early and Mature Harappan phases.
Most abundant species.
77.48%
77.84%
11.26%
4.63%This indicates a decline through time.
4.28%
4.61%The proportion remained relatively stable.
Dog bones appeared only in the Mature Harappan phase.Percentage:0.116%
Horse bones were:
Towards the end of the Mature Harappan phase, archaeological evidence suggests:
Possible explanations include:
However, the precise reason remains uncertain.
The Harappan subsistence economy displayed remarkable diversity.Its principal features included:
The Harappan economy rested upon a well-developed agricultural system, supported by animal husbandry, limited irrigation, plough cultivation, seasonal cropping, hunting, and the exploitation of riverine and marine resources. Archaeological discoveries from Kalibangan, Shortughai, Allahdino, Shikarpur, and other sites demonstrate a sophisticated and regionally adapted subsistence system capable of sustaining one of the earliest urban civilizations of the ancient world.
The Harappan Civilization possessed one of the most advanced craft traditions of the Bronze Age. Earlier scholars often contrasted the apparent simplicity of Harappan artefacts with the luxurious objects of Egypt and Mesopotamia. However, modern archaeological research has demonstrated that Harappan crafts displayed remarkable technological sophistication, standardization, mass production, and artistic excellence.Craft products were far more numerous, technically refined, and diverse than those of earlier cultural phases. While some settlements specialized in producing one or two commodities, large urban centres such as Harappa manufactured a wide range of goods. In many settlements, craft activities were concentrated in specific localities, indicating organized industrial production.
The ceramic industry represented one of the most important Harappan crafts.The term ceramics includes all products manufactured by heating clay, such as:
The pottery industry reflects an advanced level of efficient mass production.
Archaeological excavations have identified pottery kilns at:
These demonstrate organized large-scale ceramic production.
Most Harappan pottery was fired in:
Open firing kilns may also have been used in certain situations.
The Harappans produced a wide variety of pottery.Major categories include:
Most vessels were:
Both fine and coarse fabrics were manufactured.
The characteristic Harappan pottery was:
Polychrome painting was comparatively rare.
The Harappans prepared colours from naturally available minerals.
Prepared from:
Prepared by combining:
Distinctive Harappan pottery forms include:
These forms occur widely across the Harappan cultural zone.
Decoration ranged from simple to elaborate.Common motifs include:
Several designs originated during the Early Harappan phase, including:
Human figures are comparatively rare and usually crudely executed.
The earliest levels of Mohenjodaro yielded:
This may represent one of the earliest known examples of glazing in the world.
Although Harappan pottery maintained remarkable uniformity in:
Regional differences nevertheless existed in manufacturing traditions and decorative styles.
Archaeological evidence suggests different vessels served different purposes.
Probably used for storing:
The elaborately decorated vessels may have:
Probably served as:
Their precise function remains uncertain.Possible interpretations include:
Probably used for:
Likely functioned as:
Cooking vessels display several distinctive features.These include:
Many of these traditional vessel forms still survive in rural kitchens today.Besides ceramic vessels, Harappans also manufactured metal utensils.
Harappan settlements have yielded enormous quantities of terracotta objects, indicating widespread production.
Common terracotta animal figurines include:
Numerous toy carts with solid wheels have been recovered.These indicate children's toys as well as familiarity with wheeled transport.
Human terracotta figurines include:
The female figurines occur in several different forms.
Harappan craftspeople also produced:
Terracotta masks have been found at:
Faience is an artificial material produced from:
The Harappans manufactured numerous faience objects.
These include:
Animal figurines include:
One distinctive Harappan craft was the production of stone ware bangles.Characteristics include:
Many carry tiny inscriptions.
Stone working formed another major craft specialization.
The finest examples occur at Dholavira, where archaeologists discovered:
Mass-produced chert blades occur throughout the Harappan civilization.These were manufactured using the:
Chert blades were probably used as:
Important Harappan quarries have been identified in:
Some stone blades may also have been obtained through exchange with contemporary hunter-gatherer communities.
The discovery of:
inside houses at Mohenjodaro suggests that some families manufactured their own stone tools.
The Harappan Civilization is characterized by a very large number of copper artefacts.Harappan metallurgists manufactured objects using:
Copper was alloyed with:
Recovered artefacts include:
Harappan axes were:
They were probably fixed into split wooden handles.
Pure copper artefacts greatly outnumber bronze objects.Generally:
were alloyed to produce harder cutting edges.
At Mohenjodaro, bronze tools increased through time.Percentage increased from:
to
This reflects increasing use of metal alloys.
The relatively small proportion of bronze objects probably reflects:
rather than technological limitations.
Important archaeological evidence includes:
Metal artefacts were sufficiently valuable to be buried for safekeeping.
One important hoard consisted of:
Inside were numerous copper objects:
Some tools were unused while others showed extensive wear.
Harappan goldsmiths produced exceptionally fine ornaments.Recovered objects include:
The village site of Allahdino yielded a remarkable hoard containing:
This demonstrates that substantial wealth existed even in some rural settlements.
Silver was used for:
Lead served specialised purposes such as:
Two metal objects recovered from Lothal contained:
The latter qualifies as an iron object.This suggests that Harappans—particularly those of Gujarat—may have possessed some familiarity with iron smelting.
Archaeological evidence indicates that Harappans manufactured both:
Terracotta figurines depict garments such as:
These provide valuable information about Harappan dress.
Mesopotamian texts mention:
as an important import from Meluhha, indicating Harappan textile exports.
Fragments of cotton cloth survived because they remained in contact with a corroding silver vessel.Several examples of:
have also been identified on copper tools.
Cotton threads were discovered:
Recent excavations at Harappa have yielded:
The regular thickness and uniform weave indicate the use of:
Numerous spindle whorls have been recovered from Harappan settlements.
Weaving probably functioned as:
Impressions preserved on:
indicate the manufacture of:
using:
The Harappan craft industry displayed several outstanding characteristics:
The Harappan Civilization possessed one of the most advanced industrial and craft traditions of the Bronze Age. Its achievements included mass-produced pottery, terracotta figurines, faience, stone tools, copper and bronze metallurgy, gold and silver jewellery, and a well-developed textile industry. Specialized workshops, technological innovation, and high artistic standards together formed one of the strongest economic foundations of Harappan urban civilization.
Seal making was one of the most sophisticated and distinctive Harappan crafts. Harappan seals demonstrate exceptional artistic skill, technical precision, and standardization. They were widely used throughout the civilization and constitute one of its most recognizable archaeological remains.
Most Harappan seals were:
The average size of square seals was approximately 2.54 cm, although larger examples measuring over 6.35 cm have also been discovered.Other forms include:
The majority of Harappan seals were made from:
A few examples were manufactured from:
The production of seals involved several carefully executed stages.The stone was:
After carving, the seal was:
This treatment produced the characteristic white lustrous surface.
The Harappan seals were engraved using the intaglio technique.In this method:
Harappan seals depict a remarkable variety of animals.Common motifs include:
A feeding trough or stand frequently appears before the animal.
Besides animals, seals also depict:
Many rectangular seals contain:
Most Harappan seals bear:
These constitute the largest body of Harappan writing discovered so far.
The Harappans elevated bead making into a highly specialized and technologically advanced craft.Although bead making was known in earlier cultures, Harappan craftsmen introduced:
A major technological innovation was the development of:
These were used to perforate semi-precious stones with remarkable precision.
Stone drills have been discovered at:
Harappan bead makers employed a wide variety of materials.These include:
Among the finest Harappan products were the long barrel-shaped carnelian beads.These were highly prized and even reached:
demonstrating their international reputation.
Tiny micro-beads were manufactured from:
These were hardened through heating.
Beads were also manufactured from:
Although Harappan sculpture is relatively limited in quantity, surviving examples display remarkable artistic skill.Most sculptures are:
This represents the only large Harappan stone sculpture discovered so far.
Certain Harappan settlements specialized in specific industries.
Evidence includes:
Excavations have revealed:
Evidence of manufacture includes:
Materials used include:
At Bagasra, semi-precious stones were stored in:
Dimensions:
Shell working was another highly specialized Harappan craft.Shell was used to manufacture:
Conch shell bangles were particularly common.
Important centres include:
Excavations demonstrate that Nageshwar was almost exclusively devoted to:
Evidence of shell industry also comes from:
This indicates that shell working formed a major specialized industry in Gujarat.
Bone working constituted another important specialized craft.Objects manufactured include:
Harappan ivory carving produced:
One of the most remarkable characteristics of Harappan crafts is their high degree of standardization.According to Mark Kenoyer, state control may have contributed to this standardization, particularly in industries that:
Examples include:
Crafts depending primarily on:
generally display greater regional variation.Pottery and bricks also show controlled standardization but with local differences.
The Harappans developed an exceptionally accurate system of standardized weights.Weights were manufactured from:
Cubical weights have been discovered throughout the Harappan cultural zone.
The system followed two mathematical principles.
Sequence:
Higher denominations followed ratios of:
The largest known Harappan weight, discovered at Mohenjodaro, weighs:10.865 kg(as stated in the source text)
Evidence of measurement includes:
Modern Khambhat (Cambay) in Gujarat remains one of the world's largest centres of stone bead manufacture.Archaeologists:
conducted an ethno-archaeological study comparing:
This study provided valuable insights into Harappan manufacturing technology.
The production of long barrel-shaped carnelian beads involved several stages.
Drilling employed a unique cylindrical drill manufactured from a rare metamorphic rock.This material has been named:
after archaeologist Ernest J. H. Mackay, who first recognized its importance.
Making one drill required approximately:
The process involved:
At least six different drill sizes were used to manufacture a single bead.
The drilling process was probably performed using:
Continuous friction generated intense heat.To prevent overheating:
Producing one prestigious necklace consisting of 36 long carnelian beads, like that recovered from Allahdino, required:
Even with multiple craftsmen, production may have required:
These ornaments therefore represented extremely valuable luxury goods.
For people unable to afford expensive carnelian beads, Harappan craftsmen produced:
These were:
to resemble genuine carnelian.
Kenoyer, Vidale, and Bhan analysed:
Their study suggests that bead production at Chanhudaro was:
This explains:
Evidence from the Moneer area of Mohenjodaro indicates:
Thus, organization of craft production varied across Harappan settlements.
Harappan craft industries display several notable features:
The Harappan Civilization developed one of the most advanced systems of craft specialization in the Bronze Age. Seal making, bead manufacture, shell working, bone industry, stone sculpture, and standardized weights and measures demonstrate exceptional technological innovation and organizational efficiency. Ethno-archaeological studies at Khambhat and archaeological evidence from Chanhudaro, Bagasra, Nageshwar, and other sites reveal a highly organized production system capable of manufacturing luxury goods of international reputation.
Trade formed one of the strongest foundations of the Harappan economy. The enormous geographical extent of the civilization, together with the remarkable uniformity of material culture, reflects the existence of well-developed internal and external trade networks.Earlier scholars attached great importance to Harappan–Mesopotamian trade, mainly because it helped establish the chronology of the civilization before the development of radiocarbon dating. Over time, however, archaeological research has shown that although overseas trade existed, the importance of internal trade networks was even greater in maintaining the economic integration and cultural uniformity of the Harappan world.Trade during this period was conducted without coinage. Exchange was based on barter, with goods being exchanged directly for other goods.
The discovery of the Harappan Civilization generated considerable interest in its commercial contacts with Mesopotamia.Initially, scholars regarded these interactions as highly significant because:
Subsequent research has considerably modified this interpretation.Many scholars now believe that:
Instead, greater importance is now attached to interactions with:
The most significant commercial activity was the extensive network of internal trade linking various Harappan regions.These trade networks connected:
The movement of both raw materials and finished products across these regions contributed greatly to the remarkable cultural uniformity of the Harappan Civilization.
The Harappans lived before the invention of coinage.Consequently:
Goods and raw materials were exchanged directly rather than purchased with money.
One of the major objectives of Harappan archaeology is identifying the original sources of the raw materials used by Harappan craftsmen.Two principal methods are employed:
This method provides the most reliable evidence but has so far been used only to a limited extent.
Another approach is to compare:
Although this method has limitations, it helps identify the most probable sources of important raw materials.
The discovery of factory sites in the limestone hills of Sukkur and Rohri (Sindh) demonstrates that:
The principal source of copper was probably:
The earlier Ganeshwar–Jodhpura culture maintained close links with the Harappan Civilization and probably supplied copper objects and raw material.
Most probably obtained from:
Possible sources include:
Likely obtained from:
Gold probably reached Harappan settlements through trade with Neolithic communities living in southern India.These Neolithic groups may also have supplied:
Gold may also have been obtained by:
Most semi-precious stones used in bead manufacture came from:
Probably imported from:
An additional possible source:
Harappan traders almost certainly transported:
between:
This exchange linked agricultural producers with urban consumers.
An efficient transport system was essential for maintaining Harappan trade networks.The civilization employed land, river, and maritime transport.
The most important land transport vehicle was the:
Evidence includes:
Although actual carts have not survived, wheel tracks discovered at several sites indicate dimensions comparable to those used today.
Long-distance trade caravans probably employed:
Towards the end of the Mature Harappan phase, archaeological evidence also indicates the use of:
The horse appears to have played only a very limited role in Harappan transport.
Boats are depicted on:
Clay models of boats have been recovered from:
River boats possessed:
These vessels were suitable for inland river transport.
Maritime vessels were more sophisticated.Characteristic features include:
These boats facilitated long-distance coastal and overseas trade.
An extensive communication network connected all major regions of the Harappan Civilization.Trade routes linked:
These routes can be reconstructed using:
According to Lahiri (1992), important trade routes connected the following regions.
One of the major western trade corridors.
Facilitated movement between coastal settlements and inland urban centres.
Connected agricultural regions with mineral-producing areas.
Linked settlements lying north of the Indus with the major urban centre of Harappa.
An important east-west commercial route.
Facilitated movement of goods across north-western India.
One of the most significant trade routes connecting inland settlements with coastal ports.
Several important routes had already developed during the Early Harappan phase.These include:
An important north-western commercial route connected:
A feeder route extended further towards:
This route remained important throughout Harappan history.
Some earlier routes became even more important during the Mature Harappan period.These include:
These routes supported increasing regional integration.
The Indus River probably carried a significant amount of commercial traffic.River transport enabled economical movement of:
between major settlements.
A major coastal trade route connected:
with
This maritime corridor linked western India with coastal Baluchistan and beyond.
The location of Mohenjodaro was of immense commercial importance.The city stood at the intersection of:
East-west route linking:
Its geographical position made Mohenjodaro one of the most important commercial centres of the Harappan Civilization.
The Harappan trading system displayed several distinctive features:
| Raw Material | Probable Source |
|---|---|
| Chert | Sukkur–Rohri Hills (Sindh) |
| Copper | Khetri (Rajasthan) |
| Lead | Rajasthan |
| Zinc | Rajasthan |
| Tin | Tosam (Haryana), Afghanistan, Central Asia |
| Gold | Kolar (Karnataka), Upper Indus sands |
| Semi-precious stones | Gujarat |
| Lapis Lazuli | Afghanistan, Chagai Hills |
| Mode | Evidence |
|---|---|
| Bullock carts | Bronze & terracotta cart models |
| Pack animals | Oxen, sheep, goats, donkeys, camel (late phase) |
| River boats | Seals, clay models from Harappa & Lothal |
| Sea-going boats | Boats with mast, keel and sails |
The Harappan Civilization developed one of the most extensive trade networks of the Bronze Age. Commerce was conducted through barter, supported by well-organized internal trade, limited overseas trade, regional specialization, and an efficient system of land, river, and maritime transport. The movement of raw materials, finished products, agricultural goods, and luxury items across an enormous geographical area helped maintain the remarkable economic integration and cultural uniformity of the Harappan Civilization.
Long-distance trade supplemented the extensive internal trade network of the Harappan Civilization. The principal evidence comes from:
These sources together help reconstruct the overseas commercial relations of the Harappans.
Harappan and Harappan-related objects have been discovered at:
At Altyn Depe, archaeologists discovered:
This provides direct evidence of Harappan contact.
Harappan or Harappan-related artefacts have been found at:
The strongest evidence comes from:
An isolated Harappan trading outpost established in Afghanistan.Its existence demonstrates direct Harappan commercial activity beyond the Indian subcontinent.
Evidence for Harappan interaction with the Persian Gulf has increased significantly through archaeological discoveries.
Discoveries include:
Harappan-related objects include:
Excavations yielded:
Important discovery:
Many Persian Gulf sites have yielded:
These jars were probably used to transport perishable goods from the Harappan region.
Archaeological evidence indicates active Harappan trade with the Oman Peninsula.
Discoveries include:
Other Harappan-related objects:
Evidence indicating Harappan influence:
Although copper has often been suggested as an Omani export, this is considered unlikely because copper was more easily available from Rajasthan.
Trade with Mesopotamia is supported by both literary and archaeological evidence.
Records from the reign of King Sargon (2334–2279 BCE) mention ships arriving from:
| Ancient Name | Modern Identification |
|---|---|
| Dilmun | Bahrain |
| Magan | Makran Coast & Oman |
| Meluhha | Probably Indus Valley (or eastern regions including it) |
Harappan artefacts have been found at:
Major finds include:
Contained:
These beads are unmistakably Harappan.
Certain motifs indicate Harappan influence:
Mesopotamian seals are virtually absent from Harappan sites.This suggests:
The principal exports included:
Mesopotamian records mention imports from Meluhha such as:
General exports of Mesopotamia included:
Although wool and silver may have reached the Harappans, archaeological confirmation is lacking.
Ratnagar emphasized:
According to Chakrabarti (1990) and Shaffer (1982):
The archaeological evidence remains limited.
The Harappans imported only a few essential materials.
| Material | Probable Source |
|---|---|
| Lapis Lazuli | Afghanistan / Chagai Hills |
| Jade | Turkmenistan |
| Tin | Ferghana & Eastern Kazakhstan |
| Chlorite vessels | Southern Iran / Baluchistan |
| Green schist vessels | Southern Iran / Baluchistan |
Examples include:
Harappan artefacts in Mesopotamia belong approximately to:
Thus, overseas trade covered almost the entire Mature Harappan Phase.
Evidence suggests reduced but continued trade.Examples include:
Shortughai was a genuine Harappan settlement rather than merely a contact site.
Discoveries include:
Possible explanations:
No single explanation has yet been accepted conclusively.
Evidence suggests:
One of the greatest unsolved mysteries of the Harappan Civilization concerns:
Different languages and dialects may have been spoken across the vast Harappan region.The language used in inscriptions may have belonged to the elite class.Major theories suggest:
However:No scholarly consensus has yet been reached.
About 3,700 inscribed objects have been discovered.
Writing occurs on:
Writing probably served several purposes.
Likely used by merchants for:
Evidence:
Because seals show heavy edge wear:They may also have functioned as:
Users may have included:
Broken seals were probably deliberately destroyed to prevent misuse.
Made of:
Since they were not used for stamping, their writing is not reversed.Their restricted distribution suggests specialized use.Many duplicate examples have been found.
Found mainly at:
Usually carry:
Likely served restricted administrative or ceremonial purposes.
Two forms occur:
Potters inscribed marks during manufacture.
Marks were scratched after firing.These inscriptions indicate:
Seal impressions on goblets may indicate:
The famous signboard suggests:
The common script across the entire civilization indicates:
Its disappearance by about 1700 BCE reflects:
Interpretation of Harappan religion remains speculative because:
John Marshall first identified many of its major features.
Evidence suggesting fertility worship includes:
One famous seal depicts:
Often interpreted as an early fertility or Earth Mother symbol.
According to Alexandra Ardeleanu-Jansen (2002):
Characteristics:
Residues inside cups suggest burning of oil or incense.Possible functions:
Features:
May represent:
Some figurines carry babies.
Female figurines are abundant at:
Rare or absent at:
Marshall identified a famous Mohenjodaro seal depicting:
Marshall identified him with:
This interpretation remains debated.
Marshall suggested worship of:
George Dales challenged this interpretation.However:A terracotta linga with yoni-pitha discovered at Kalibangan supports possible fertility symbolism.
The Pipal tree (Ficus religiosa) appears frequently.Possible features:
One seal shows:
This has been compared with later traditions of:
Animals possibly possessing religious significance include:
The bull appears especially important.Evidence:
Represents:
Depictions include:
These probably had:
Harappan amulets were made of:
Common motifs include:
Likely associated with:
Terracotta masks discovered at:
Represent:
Possible functions:
The Harappans maintained long-distance trade with Afghanistan, Iran, Central Asia, the Persian Gulf, Oman, and Mesopotamia, although internal trade remained economically more important. Their undeciphered script, found mainly on seals and tablets, reflects a high degree of cultural integration and administrative organization. Religious beliefs centred on fertility cults, mother goddess figurines, the horned Pashupati figure, sacred trees, animal symbolism, and protective amulets, though many interpretations remain tentative because the script has not yet been deciphered.
The famous Pashupati Seal has been interpreted in several different ways by scholars.Various identifications include:
M. K. Dhavalikar and Shubhangana Atre suggested that the figure represents a goddess, calling it the "Lady of the Beasts."However, the essential elements of John Marshall's interpretation remain persuasive.
Evidence of fire altars has been reported from:
At:
Fire altars probably represented community religious ceremonies.
At:
Fire altars appear to have been connected with household religious practices.
The unequal distribution of fire altars across Harappan sites demonstrates:
Harappan cemeteries have been excavated at:
The usual practice involved:
Objects buried with the dead included:
However:
This indicates that the Harappans preferred using wealth during life rather than burying it after death.
Evidence includes:
Evidence of:
Evidence of:
In this practice:
Found at:
These suggest the practice of cremation.
Evidence of:
Harappan religion and burial customs display considerable diversity.Some elements resemble later Hindu traditions.However, one major feature is absent:
No excavated Harappan structure can be conclusively identified as a temple.
Terracotta, bronze and stone sculptures provide valuable information about:
Although these figurines are stylized and not necessarily realistic, they provide an important glimpse into Harappan society.
Harappan figurines include:
Female figurines indicate that women wore:
Hair was worn in various fashions:
The famous fan-shaped headdress may actually represent hair stretched over a bamboo framework.At Harappa, these are often decorated with:
Such hairstyles may indicate:
Common ornaments include:
These correspond well with the jewellery excavated from Harappan sites.
Harappan children enjoyed a wide variety of toys.Examples include:
Miniature objects include:
These were probably used for children's domestic games.
Terracotta figurines depict children holding clay discs.Large numbers of clay discs recovered from Harappan sites suggest a game similar to the modern Pithu.
Numerous terracotta dogs with collars indicate:
Several human and animal figurines possess comic expressions.This suggests the Harappans appreciated humour.
Although goddess worship existed, it does not necessarily imply that ordinary women enjoyed high social status.Many female figurines probably depict ordinary women.
Few figurines show women engaged in work.Examples include:
Such figurines were found at:
These suggest women's association with food processing.
Some terracotta figurines depict:
A Harappa burial containing a woman and infant may represent:
An unusual figurine depicts:
Its precise significance remains uncertain.
Tiny child figurines occur at many sites.Their function is uncertain.They may represent:
Modern excavations have greatly improved understanding of Harappan health through scientific skeletal analysis.
Excavations supervised by:J. M. KenoyerPhysical anthropologists included:
Total:90 skeletonsMost belonged to females.
| Age Group | Number |
|---|---|
| Children (<16 yrs) | 15 |
| Young Adults (17–34 yrs) | 35 |
| Middle-aged Adults (35–55 yrs) | 27 |
| Older Adults (>55 yrs) | 13 |
Overall health was good.Evidence shows:
There is no evidence of:
Three individuals showed:
Possible causes:
Most frequent ailment:ArthritisAffected:
Severe neck arthritis probably resulted from:
The people buried in Cemetery R-37 were:
This indicates long-term biological continuity.
Kennedy rejected old racial classifications.His conclusions:
Harappan society included both:
Included:
Evidence includes:
These indicate:
Likely affluent groups included:
Claims regarding the existence of a caste system are highly speculative.
The principal debate concerns:
Compared with Egypt and Mesopotamia:
However:Large fortifications (especially at Dholavira) suggest that force and defence cannot be ignored.
The civilization lasted about 700 years.This suggests:
Ruling groups likely maintained:
Seals may preserve names or titles of these elites.
Suggested:
Ruled by:
Evidence cited:
Rejected the empire theory.Arguments:
Believed:
Later accepted limited centralized control.
Suggested:Harappan polity represented a Chiefdom, intermediate between:
Argued in favour of:
Rejected centralized empire.Arguments:
Evidence nevertheless indicates existence of a state.Supporting evidence includes:
The unanswered questions remain:
The famous Priest-King statue from Mohenjodaro depicts:
Whether he was:
remains uncertain.Similarly, the seated figure from Dholavira cannot be conclusively identified.No Harappan building clearly qualifies as a palace.
The Harappan state was an early state characterized by:
Harappan society possessed:
Government may have functioned through:
Urban elites included:
Different elites exercised authority over different spheres.
Kenoyer proposed that animal motifs represented:Totemic clans.Major clan symbols:
Occurs:
Frequency:
Ratnagar
Kenoyer
Less common motifs may represent the highest rulers.
Large cities include:
Possible models:
No single model has been conclusively established.
Urban decline began at different times.Examples:
Proposed by:
Arguments:
Scholars rejecting the theory:
Major objections:
Conclusion:Harappan Civilization was not destroyed by Aryan invasion.
The Ghaggar-Hakra system suffered from river capture.Possible causes:
Result:
Rise in Arabian Sea coastline may have caused:
Gurdip SinghSuggested:
However:Later studies indicate dry conditions began much earlier.Thus climatic explanation remains uncertain.
Possible human causes:
Consequences:
Fairservis suggested:Population growth exceeded available resources.
Shereen Ratnagar argued:Decline of lapis lazuli trade with Mesopotamia contributed to Harappan decline.However:Since the importance of this trade itself remains debated, this explanation is not widely accepted.
Archaeology does not directly reveal the political or social reasons behind the decline of the Harappan Civilization.However, it clearly demonstrates a process of:
Thus,
Mature Harappan Phase → Late (Post-Urban) Harappan Phase
rather than a sudden collapse.
Five major regional zones are recognized:
Each region followed its own developmental trajectory.
Important sites:
No sudden break from the Mature Harappan phase.
Represented mainly in:
| Phase | Number of Sites |
|---|---|
| Mature Harappan | 174 |
| Late Harappan | 50 |
This reflects:
Characteristics:
Compared to:
| Phase | Sites |
|---|---|
| Mature Harappan | 31 |
| Late Harappan | 130 |
Important observation:Urban decline was accompanied by eastward expansion.
One of the most remarkable developments.
| Phase | Number of Sites |
|---|---|
| Mature Harappan | 18 |
| Early Late Harappan | 120 |
Indicates:
The Late Harappan period combined:
Compared with Mature Harappan pottery:Late Harappan pottery shows:
Many urban features declined:
However,they did not disappear completely.
Some urban settlements continued.Examples:
Evidence includes:
Important discovery:Bet DwarkaFound:
Similar motifs occur in Persian Gulf seals.This indicates:Late Harappan maritime trade still continued.
Evidence includes:
These may represent a continuing script tradition.
Important discoveries:
One of the most important developments.
Beginning of:
Winter Crops
Summer Crops
Rice cultivation depended upon irrigation.
Evidence of:
Important crops:
Late Harappan evidence includes:
Extremely diverse agricultural evidence.
The economy shifted towards:
Instead of:
Late Harappan culture overlapped with:
Sites:
Sites:
Evidence suggests:Harappan populations gradually migrated:
Probably because of:
The Harappan Civilization was:
The civilization:
Major features of this phase:
Following the discussion of the Harappan Civilization, historians next examine:
Major questions include:
These issues remain subjects of continuing scholarly debate.
Following the Mature Harappan period:
Both cultures retained:
But also showed:
Major sites:
Represented especially at:
Important large settlements:
Most settlements:
Primary cause:Drying up of the Hakra River.
Nearly:563 Late Harappan sitesidentified between:
Mostly:
Evidence includes:
Features:
Evidence includes:
Identified crops:
Around:70 Late Harappan siteslocated mostly along tributaries of the Yamuna:
Occupation:Approximately:Before 2000 BCE to 1000 BCE
Mainly:
Earliest phase also shows:
Final phase:
Features:
Very diverse.Included:
Clearly indicates:A highly developed agricultural economy.
Excavated by:D. V. SharmaDate:Approximately:2200–1800 BCEImportant discoveries:
Two stratigraphic patterns:
OCP → Break → PGWExamples:
OCP → BRW → PGWExamples:
Sites showing overlap:
Scholars differ:
Copper hoard artefacts differ from Harappan copper objects in:
Important evidence:Sanauli yielded:
This provides an important connection between Late Harappans and Copper Hoard culture.
Do not confuse BRW with Harappan black-on-red ware.BRW occurs across numerous cultural traditions including:
It represents a widespread ceramic tradition rather than a single culture.
Settlement numbers increased dramatically.Major sites include:
Important site:
| Period | Culture |
|---|---|
| I | Savalda |
| II | Late Harappan |
| III | Daimabad Culture |
| IV | Malwa |
| V | Jorwe |
Settlement:Approximately 20 hectaresImportant features:
A spectacular bronze hoard weighing about 60 kg was recovered.Characteristics:
(Part 18 will cover the beginning of the Vedic Age, Indo-Aryans, Rig Vedic Society, Economy, Polity, Religion and Culture.)
Period V at Daimabad represents the Jorwe Culture, one of the most important Chalcolithic cultures of the Deccan.
Excavations identified houses belonging to specialized craftsmen:
This indicates:
An elliptical ritual structure was discovered.Features:
Offerings included:
This suggests ritual or ceremonial activities.
Discoveries include:
Most remarkable discovery:
This is important evidence for transport technology in the Chalcolithic Deccan.
Most crops continued from the previous phase.New additions included:
These indicate increasing adaptation to dry farming.
Total burials:48Break-up:
Except for one Late Harappan burial, almost all burials belonged to infants and young people.This remains an archaeological puzzle.
Dental analysis revealed:
One case of:
This provides evidence regarding nutrition and health conditions.
Evidence suggests interaction with:
Contacts also existed with:
However, the exact nature of these exchanges remains uncertain.
PGW is one of the most important archaeological cultures associated with the later Vedic period.
PGW occurs in four archaeological situations.
Late Harappan → Break → PGWExamples:
Late Harappan overlaps with PGWExamples:
OCP → Break → PGWExamples:
BRW → Break → PGWExamples:
PGW gradually overlaps with:Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW)
Most houses were:
Evidence of bricks:
Important discovery:A large 13-room baked brick house.Whether it belongs to PGW or Late Harappan remains debated.
One of the biggest debates in Indian archaeology concerns:
Harappan Civilization was destroyed by Aryans.
Harappans and incoming Indo-Aryans overlapped.
There was no Aryan migration.Harappans themselves were Vedic Aryans.
The difficulties include:
Therefore,No definitive correlation is possible.
Important conclusions:
Only:Possible small-scale population movements.
Various cultures have been linked with Indo-Aryans.Examples:
Many scholars accept:Later Vedic Culture ↔ Painted Grey Ware (PGW)because of:
After the decline of the Harappan Civilization,there is a long gap in monumental stone architecture.Large-scale stone sculpture reappears only during the:Mauryan Period
Two broad categories:
Patronized by:
Examples:
Created by ordinary people.Includes:
An artisan named:Chapadaleft his signature on Ashokan inscriptions at:
This provides rare evidence regarding individual craftsmen.
Occupation continued from:Late Harappan onwards.
Nearby mud huts probably served as:
Important discoveries:
Shows flourishing religious and artistic activity.
Early Historic occupation.Evidence:
Occupation sequence:
Possible roots extend back to the Harappan Civilization.
The famous:Pashupati Sealis interpreted by many scholars as an early form of Shiva.
The word:"Shiva"appears only as an adjective meaning:"Auspicious."The principal deity is:Rudra
Characteristics:
These qualities resemble the later Shiva.
Rudra gradually evolved into Shiva.Names include:
Found in:Vajasaneyi SamhitaDescribes Rudra-Shiva as:
Shiva became associated with:
Declares Shiva as:
Mentions several names of Shiva,indicating the growing importance of Shaivism.
The Sibae tribe of Punjab,mentioned during Alexander's invasion,has been identified by some historians as:Possible worshippers of Shiva.
Mentions:
Also refers to:Shiva-bhagavataswho:
Earliest organized Shaiva sect.Characteristics:
Traditionally associated with:
Today Shiva is mainly worshipped as the:Lingarepresenting:
Stone objects resembling:
have been found at Harappan sites.Thus,many scholars trace the origins of linga worship to the Harappan Civilization.
The Rig Veda criticizes:Shishnadevas (phallus worshippers).This indicates that phallic worship existed even before its later association with Shiva.
During this period:
Ravana is described as worshipping Rudra in Linga form.
States that:
have always worshipped the Linga.
Explains the famous doctrine of:Lingodbhava (origin of the Linga).
This completes the discussion on the Late Harappan cultures, PGW, Aryan debate, and the transition from the Harappan world to the Vedic and Early Historic traditions.