The Hoysala dynasty represents a later and major phase of temple architecture in the Deccan. The Hoysalas ruled over southern Karnataka from their capital at Dorasamudra, identified with modern Halebid. Their period is especially important for the development of temple architecture, sculptural refinement, irrigation expansion, regional conflicts and the growth of Kannada literary culture.
The early medieval period saw remarkable developments in art and architecture. In peninsular India, major temples were built under the patronage of the Rashtrakutas, early Western Chalukyas, Pallavas, Hoysalas and Cholas. Unlike earlier periods, when many major monuments were Buddhist, this phase was dominated by Hindu temple architecture.The Hoysala temples are mainly found at Halebid, Belur and Somnathpur. These temples are noted for their extremely fine, delicate and detailed carvings on walls and ceilings. The carvings were executed on smooth chlorite schist, which allowed highly refined sculptural work.
The Vesara style is described as a hybrid style which borrowed from both Nagara and Dravida traditions. Temples built in the Deccan under the Later Chalukyas of Kalyani and the Hoysalas are considered examples of this style.However, Hoysala architecture should not be seen merely as a mixture of northern and southern elements. It developed a distinct Deccan identity with its own variations, complex plans and highly ornamental surface decoration.
The most imposing shrine at Halebid is the 12th-century Hoysaleshvara Temple. It is one of the finest examples of the Chalukyan / Vesara architectural tradition.The temple consists of two separate shrines, both having a cruciform plan and resting on cruciform-shaped plinths. These two shrines are almost identical and are connected by a covered passage. Each shrine is preceded by a Nandi pavilion.The Nandi pavilions contain profusely ornamented but realistically carved sculptures of Nandi bulls. The shikharas of the two temples are missing.The temple contains images of gods and attendants, along with figures of yaksha and yakshini. Its finely sculptured panels show a wide panorama of life, including dance, music, war and love. This shows how religion, art and social life were closely integrated. For common people, temples were not only places of worship but also centres of social and cultural life.
The Keshava Temple at Belur consists of a complex of shrines within a large courtyard. The main shrine was built in the early 12th century.Its pillared mandapa is cruciform in plan and rests on a plinth of the same shape. The shikhara of the shrine is no longer extant. The intricate carvings on the outer walls, inner walls, pillars, screens and bracket figures are remarkable for their finesse.
The 13th-century Keshava Temple at Somnathpur represents the high point of Hoysala temple architecture and sculpture.It is a triple-shrine temple. The three shrines have star-shaped projections on three sides, and the plinth follows the intricate outline of the shrine. Its plan is more complex than earlier Hoysala temples.The shikhara is of moderate height and stands stylistically between the Nagara and Dravida temple towers. The walls and ceilings are richly carved in typical Hoysala style and include several erotic themes.The three images housed in the temple are:
| Shrine | Image |
|---|---|
| Main Shrine | Keshava |
| Second Shrine | Krishna as Venugopala |
| Third Shrine | Janardhana Vishnu |
The Chola empire continued to flourish during the 12th century, but declined in the early 13th century. During the later phase of Chola rule, the kingdom faced hostility from the Chalukyas and Hoysalas, which weakened it.By the end of the 12th century, local chiefs became powerful, weakening the Chola centre. Frequent Pandya invasions further reduced Chola power. The once powerful Chola empire became dependent on the stronger Hoysalas.
The rise of the second Pandya kingdom affected Hoysala power in the south. Jatavarman Sundarapandyan (1251–1268) brought Tamil Nadu under his rule and extended his authority up to Nellore in Andhra.Under him, the Pandya kingdom reached its zenith while keeping the Hoysalas in check. The decline of the Chola state emboldened Vira Someshwara to challenge Sundarapandyan, but he was defeated at Kannanur, and his territory was plundered.
Kalikatti is mentioned in inscriptions belonging to the reign of Hoysala king Vishnuvardhana (1108–1142 CE). It had become an important place and was described as the foremost village in a territorial unit called Magare 300.An inscription dated 1130 CE states that mahasamanta Singarasa of Arasikere obtained Kalikatti and governed it. He installed a deity named Singeshvara, named after himself, and granted dry and wet lands to a Kalamukha priest for maintaining the Shiva shrine.An inscription of 1132 CE suggests that Singarasa was shifted from Arasikere to Kalikatti. He later installed a linga named Bettadakalideva and made more grants of dry and wet land near the big tank of the village.An inscription of 1189 CE, from the reign of Ballala II, describes Kalikatti as a prosperous village with well-filled tanks, areca palms, rice fields and fine temples.
The Kalikatti inscriptions frequently mention the big tank of the village and its sluices. Other tanks, including Aduva-gere, are also mentioned.Some tanks were named after individuals:
The suffix yoja in Hariyoja’s name suggests that he was an artisan.These references show that tanks were built at different times, reflecting several initiatives to expand irrigation infrastructure. This expansion must have increased agricultural productivity.
Several inscriptions from Karnataka show that conflicts existed within rural society.Conflict could arise over the introduction of Brahmana donees into a village. A mid-13th century epigraph records that gaudas, or cultivators, protested against the conversion of their village into a brahmadeya. The king then sent an army to pillage the village and punish them.Conflicts also emerged over village resources. A 1230 CE inscription from Hassan taluk records that two farmers died while trying to prevent agents of Brahmanas from cutting down palmyra trees in their village.Water was a particularly sensitive issue. A 1080 CE inscription from Hassan taluk refers to a dispute between a Brahmana and a farmer’s family over drawing water from a village tank. An early 13th-century inscription mentions a conflict between farmers and a chief over an irrigation tank. The chief was killed, and the Hoysala king set up a hero stone in his memory and built a new tank.
Ramanuja initially lived in Kanchipuram and later settled at Shrirangam. He is described as having been persecuted by a Chola king who was a devotee of Shiva. Due to this, he sought refuge in the court of the Hoysala king.Ramanuja wrote several works, including:
His philosophy is known as Vishishtadvaita, or qualified non-dualism. It combined Vaishnava bhakti with Upanishadic monism.In this doctrine, Brahman is saguna, meaning Brahman possesses qualities. In the form of Ishvara, Brahman can be invoked by devotees through bhakti. Ramanuja explained the relation between Brahman and Atman through the example of a rose and redness. They are distinct, but inseparable.
Kannada became an important literary language during this period. The Rashtrakutas, Chalukyas and Hoysalas patronized Kannada as well as Telugu.Many Jain scholars contributed to the growth of Kannada literature. The three gems of Kannada poetry were:
Though influenced by Jainism, they also wrote on themes from the Ramayana and Mahabharata.
By the late 13th and early 14th centuries, the Delhi Sultanate began expanding into the Deccan and South India. The rulers of Deogir were at war with Warangal and the Hoysalas, while the Hoysalas were also in conflict with the Pandyas in the Tamil region.These rivalries weakened the regional powers and made deeper southern expansion easier for invaders.During Alauddin Khalji’s Deccan campaigns, Malik Kafur led expeditions into the peninsula. After Devagiri and Warangal, the Hoysala ruler Vira Ballala III surrendered all his treasures to the Delhi forces in 1310.
The decline of the Hoysala kingdom helped the rise of Vijayanagara. The date of Harihara’s coronation is placed at 1336. Initially, Harihara had to face both the Hoysala ruler of Mysore and the Sultan of Madurai.The Sultan of Madurai had defeated and executed the Hoysala ruler. The dissolution of the Hoysala kingdom allowed Harihara and Bukka to expand their small principality.By 1346, the whole Hoysala kingdom had passed into the hands of the Vijayanagara rulers. This expansion was supported by Harihara and Bukka’s brothers and relatives, who administered the conquered territories.
The Tungabhadra doab, lying between the Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers, was a region of great wealth and economic importance. It had earlier been contested between:
Later, it became a major zone of conflict between Vijayanagara rulers and the Bahmani Sultans.
The Hoysalas were weakened by continuous conflict with neighbouring powers such as the Pandyas, along with wider instability in the Deccan. In 1310, Vira Ballala III submitted to the forces of the Delhi Sultanate. Later, the Hoysala kingdom dissolved, and by 1346, its territory passed into the hands of the Vijayanagara rulers.