Indian National Congress: Foundation and the Moderate Phase (1885–1905)

Foundation of the Indian National Congress

By the late 1870s and early 1880s, political consciousness had spread across India, creating a strong foundation for an all-India political organisation. The idea was ultimately shaped by A.O. Hume, a retired English civil servant, who brought together leading Indian intellectuals and organised the first session of the Indian National Congress (INC) in December 1885 at Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College, Bombay.Before the formation of the Congress, two sessions of the Indian National Conference had already been held in 1883 and 1885, with representatives from major towns across India. The principal architects of this conference were Surendranath Banerjea and Ananda Mohan Bose.The first Congress session was attended by 72 delegates and was presided over by Womesh Chandra Bonnerjee. Thereafter, the Congress met every year in December, with the venue changing to different parts of the country.

Important Leaders of the Early Congress

The prominent presidents and leaders during the early phase included:

• Dadabhai Naoroji (President three times)
• Badruddin Tyabji
• Pherozshah Mehta
• P. Anandacharlu
• Surendranath Banerjea
• Romesh Chandra Dutt
• Ananda Mohan Bose
• Gopal Krishna Gokhale

Other important leaders were:

• Mahadeo Govind Ranade
• Bal Gangadhar Tilak
• Sisir Kumar Ghosh
• Motilal Ghosh
• Madan Mohan Malaviya
• G. Subramaniya Aiyar
• C. Vijayaraghavachariar
• Dinshaw E. Wacha

In 1890, Kadambini Ganguly, the first woman graduate of Calcutta University, addressed the Congress session. This symbolised the commitment of the national movement towards giving women their rightful place in public and national life.Besides the Congress, nationalist activities were also carried forward through provincial associations, conferences, newspapers and literature.

Theories Regarding the Formation of the Congress

Modern Historical View

Modern historians reject the Safety Valve Theory. They argue that the Indian National Congress emerged from the genuine political awakening of Indians who wished to establish a national political organisation. Since such an organisation would have faced severe official opposition if created solely by Indians, A.O. Hume acted as a catalyst, helping to bring nationalist forces together.

Aims and Objectives of the Indian National Congress

The Congress sought to:

• Found a democratic and nationalist movement.
• Politicise and politically educate the people.
• Establish a national headquarters for political activities.
• Promote cooperation among nationalist workers from different regions.
• Develop and spread anti-colonial nationalist ideology.
• Formulate and present common political and economic demands before the government.
• Promote national unity irrespective of religion, caste and province.
• Carefully nurture Indian nationhood.

Era of Moderates (1885–1905)

Important Leaders

The Congress between 1885 and 1905 was dominated by leaders known as the Moderates, including:

• Dadabhai Naoroji
• Pherozshah Mehta
• D.E. Wacha
• W.C. Bonnerjee
• Surendranath Banerjea

They believed in Liberalism and Moderate politics, distinguishing themselves from the later Extremists.

Moderate Approach

The Moderates believed in constitutional agitation within the limits of law. They assumed that the British Government was fundamentally just but unaware of Indian conditions. Therefore, they expected that public opinion, petitions, resolutions and meetings would gradually convince the government to introduce reforms.Their political strategy rested on two major principles:

1. Create public opinion, awaken political consciousness, and unite people on common national issues.
2. Persuade the British Government and British public opinion to introduce constitutional reforms in India.

Their principal methods included:

• Prayer
• Petitions
• Resolutions
• Meetings
• Constitutional agitation

They believed that political relations with Britain were beneficial at that stage, and considered the time not yet suitable for a direct confrontation with colonial rule. Their objective was to gradually transform colonial administration into a system resembling national self-government.

Congress Activities in Britain

In 1889, a British Committee of the Indian National Congress was established in London, with India as its official journal.Dadabhai Naoroji devoted a significant portion of his life and personal income to presenting India's case before the British public.A proposal was made to hold a Congress session in London in 1892, but owing to the British elections of 1891, the proposal was postponed and never revived.

Contributions of the Moderate Nationalists

1. Economic Critique of British Imperialism

The Moderates, led by Dadabhai Naoroji, Romesh Chandra Dutt and Dinshaw Wacha, made a systematic study of British economic policies.Their major contribution was the Drain Theory, which explained how British rule continuously transferred India's wealth to Britain.They opposed the conversion of India into:

• A supplier of raw materials.
• A source of food grains.
• A market for British manufactured goods.
• A destination for British investment capital.

Major Economic Demands

They demanded:

• Reduction of land revenue.
• Abolition of the Salt Tax.
• Improvement in plantation labour conditions.
• Reduction in military expenditure.
• Government support and tariff protection for modern industries.
• Development of an independent Indian economy through Indian capital and enterprise.

2. Constitutional Reforms and Legislative Work

Although the Legislative Councils possessed little real authority before 1920, the Moderates effectively used them to expose the shortcomings of colonial administration.The Imperial Legislative Council, established under the Indian Councils Act, 1861, remained largely powerless. Between 1862 and 1892, only 45 Indians were nominated, most of whom represented wealthy or loyalist interests.Notable nominated Indians included:

• Syed Ahmed Khan
• Kristodas Pal
• V.N. Mandlik
• K.L. Nulkar
• Rashbehari Ghosh

Main Constitutional Demands (1885–1892)

The Moderates demanded:

• Expansion of Legislative Councils through greater Indian participation.
• Reform of Councils by granting greater legislative and financial powers.

Their long-term objective remained democratic self-government.

Indian Councils Act, 1892

Main Provisions

Limitations

Further Constitutional Demands

After 1892, the Moderates demanded:

• Majority of elected Indian members in legislative councils.
• Control over the Budget, including the right to vote and amend it.
• The famous slogan: "No Taxation Without Representation."

Later, leaders such as:

• Dadabhai Naoroji (1904)
• Gopal Krishna Gokhale (1905)
• Lokmanya Tilak (1906)

demanded Self-Government on the lines of Canada and Australia.Leaders such as Pherozshah Mehta and Gopal Krishna Gokhale severely criticised official government policies.Although the British intended these councils to merely absorb criticism, the Moderates successfully transformed them into forums for:

• Highlighting public grievances.
• Criticising bureaucracy.
• Exposing administrative failures.
• Raising financial and economic issues.
• Weakening the moral legitimacy of British rule.

However, they failed to widen the democratic base by not mobilising the masses, especially women, or demanding universal voting rights.

3. Campaign for Administrative Reforms

The Moderates campaigned for several administrative reforms.

Indianisation of Civil Services

They demanded greater recruitment of Indians because:

• British officials received excessively high salaries.
• British salaries and pensions caused an economic drain.
• Indians were unfairly excluded from positions of responsibility.

Other Major Administrative Demands

• Separation of Executive and Judiciary.
• Criticism of oppressive bureaucracy.
• Criticism of an expensive and slow judicial system.
• Opposition to costly foreign policies, including the annexation of Burma, attacks on Afghanistan, and suppression of North-West tribal areas.
• Higher expenditure on health, sanitation, education, irrigation and agriculture.
• Agricultural banks for cultivators.
• Better treatment of Indian labourers in British colonies abroad.

4. Protection of Civil Rights

The Moderates strongly defended:

• Freedom of Speech
• Freedom of Thought
• Freedom of Association
• Freedom of the Press

Through sustained campaigns, they spread modern democratic ideas across India.Growing political awareness was reflected in widespread public protests following:

• The arrest of Bal Gangadhar Tilak (1897).
• The arrest and deportation of the Natu Brothers without trial.

Evaluation of the Early Nationalists

Major Achievements

The Early Nationalists:

• Represented the most progressive political forces of their time.
• Created all-India political consciousness.
• Fostered the idea of common national interests.
• Popularised modern political ideas.
• Trained Indians in constitutional political work.
• Exposed the exploitative nature of colonial rule.
• Established the principle that India should be governed in the interests of Indians.
• Laid the foundation for the later mass-based and militant nationalist movement.

Major Weakness

They failed to broaden the democratic base of the movement and did not sufficiently involve the masses.

Role of the Masses

The Moderate movement had a limited social base, and the masses remained largely passive.The Moderates believed:

• Indian society was divided by religion, caste and region.
• The masses lacked political education.
• National unity had to be created before mass political participation.

However, they failed to realise that active participation in the freedom struggle itself would create national unity.Because mass mobilisation remained weak, the Moderates could not adopt militant political methods. Nevertheless, they continued to represent the interests of the emerging Indian nation against colonial rule.

Attitude of the British Government

Despite the Moderates' constitutional methods and loyalty to the Crown, the British Government remained hostile towards the Congress from its inception.After 1887, official hostility intensified because the Congress increasingly criticised colonial policies.The government:

• Branded Congress leaders as "seditious Brahmins" and "disloyal Babus."
• Lord Dufferin described the Congress as "a factory of sedition."
• Adopted the policy of Divide and Rule.
• Encouraged Sir Syed Ahmed Khan and Raja Shiv Prasad Singh of Benaras to establish the United Indian Patriotic Association against Congress propaganda.
• Attempted to divide nationalists on religious lines.
• Used the Carrot and Stick Policy to create differences between Moderates and Extremists.

Despite these measures, the British Government failed to stop the steady growth of Indian nationalism.

Important Personalities at a Glance

Quick Revision

Foundation

• 1885 – First INC Session at Bombay.
• Venue – Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College.
• Founder-organiser – A.O. Hume.
• First President – Womesh Chandra Bonnerjee.
• Delegates – 72.

Moderate Phase (1885–1905)

• Constitutional methods.
• Prayer, Petition and Protest.
• Political education.
• Economic critique through Drain Theory.
• Administrative reforms.
• Protection of civil liberties.
• Constitutional reforms.
• Indianisation of services.
• Gradual self-government.
• Foundation for the later mass nationalist movement.

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