IN NEWS: Rising Water Stress and Inter-State River Water Disputes in India

Introduction

Increasing water demand, rapid urbanisation, agricultural expansion, environmental degradation and climate variability are intensifying inter-state river water disputes in India. Since most Indian rivers flow across multiple states, competing claims over water-sharing frequently generate political, legal and federal tensions, especially between upstream and downstream states.Recent developments such as:

• Punjab’s objections regarding Ravi-Beas waters,
• The Supreme Court’s direction to constitute a tribunal over the Pennaiyar River dispute,
• Continuing disputes over Cauvery, Mahanadi, and other river basins,

have once again highlighted the complexity of India’s water governance framework.

Why Inter-State River Water Disputes are Increasing

India is witnessing rising pressure on freshwater resources because of multiple structural factors.

Major Causes

Rising Water Demand

Increasing demand is driven by:

• Population growth
• Expanding urban centres
• Industrialisation
• Irrigation-intensive agriculture

Agriculture remains the largest consumer of water in India.

Groundwater Depletion

Several states are facing:

• Falling groundwater levels
• Over-extraction of aquifers
• Reduced recharge capacity

This increases dependence on river waters.

Upstream-Downstream Conflicts

Disputes often emerge when:

• Upstream states construct dams or barrages
• River flows are diverted
• Downstream states fear reduced water availability

Climatic and Seasonal Variability

Uneven monsoon patterns and climate stress have intensified:

• Drought conditions
• Seasonal fluctuations
• Water scarcity during lean periods

Major Inter-State River Water Disputes in India

Important River Water Disputes

Recent Developments

Punjab-Rajasthan Water Dispute

Punjab Chief Minister Bhagwant Mann demanded:

• Payment of alleged pending dues related to water use from Rajasthan
• Review of British-era water-sharing arrangements

The issue is linked with:

• Ravi-Beas waters
• Canal systems in Punjab
• Historical allocation agreements

Pennaiyar River Dispute

On 2 February 2026, the Supreme Court directed the Centre to constitute a tribunal regarding the:

• Tamil Nadu–Karnataka dispute over the Pennaiyar River

This adds to ongoing disputes between the two states over:

• Cauvery river water sharing

Mahanadi Dispute

Odisha and Chhattisgarh remain engaged in disputes over:

• Water sharing in the Mahanadi basin

The issue largely concerns:

• Upstream infrastructure development by Chhattisgarh
• Downstream water availability concerns in Odisha

Cauvery River Dispute: A Classic Example

The Cauvery dispute remains one of India’s most prominent inter-state river conflicts.

Historical Background

The dispute dates back to agreements signed during British India:

• 1892 Agreement
• 1924 Agreement between Mysore and Madras Presidency

The 1924 agreement:

• Remained valid for 50 years
• Expired in 1974

Formation of the Tribunal

Following Tamil Nadu’s demand for greater water allocation:

• The Cauvery Water Disputes Tribunal (CWDT) was constituted in 1990

Key Milestones

Water Allocation after Supreme Court Judgement

Additional water was reserved for:

• Ecological sustenance
• Outflow into the sea

Constitutional and Legal Framework

Article 246

Article 246 distributes legislative powers between:

• Union
• States

through the:

• Union List
• State List
• Concurrent List

Entry 17 of State List

Entry 17 deals with:

• Water supply
• Irrigation
• Canals
• Water storage
• Water power

However, it remains subject to Entry 56 of the Union List.

Entry 56 of Union List

Entry 56 empowers Parliament regarding:

• Regulation and development of inter-state rivers and river valleys

Article 262

Article 262 empowers Parliament to:

• Adjudicate inter-state river water disputes
• Exclude jurisdiction of courts in such disputes

Inter-State River Water Disputes Act, 1956

Parliament enacted the Inter-State River Water Disputes (ISRWD) Act, 1956 under Article 262.

Key Features

• States can approach the Centre regarding disputes
• If negotiations fail, the Centre may establish a tribunal
• Tribunal awards become final after publication in the Official Gazette

The Act has been amended:

• Four times
• Last amendment: 2002

Structure and Powers of Water Tribunals

Composition

Tribunals consist of:

• One Chairman
• Two Members

appointed by the Chief Justice of India from among:

• Supreme Court judges
• High Court judges

Additional assessors may also be appointed.

Powers

Tribunal decisions:

• Are final and binding
• Become enforceable after Gazette notification

The Centre may formulate schemes for implementation.

Role of Supreme Court

Although Article 262 bars ordinary judicial intervention, the Supreme Court continues to play an important role through:

Article 131

Provides original jurisdiction in:

• Centre-state disputes
• Inter-state disputes

Article 136

Allows the Supreme Court to hear:

• Special Leave Petitions (SLPs)
• Appeals against tribunal awards

Challenges in Existing Water Governance

Major Issues

• Delayed tribunal decisions
• Politicisation of water disputes
• Weak implementation mechanisms
• Lack of integrated river basin management
• Ecological neglect
• Increasing climate vulnerability

Need for Integrated Water Governance

Experts increasingly advocate:

• Basin-based river management
• Integrated water-land-food planning
• Ecological sustainability in river management

The article also highlights concerns regarding:

• River interlinking projects
• Excessive dam construction
• Disturbance of natural hydrological flows

At a time when several countries are removing old dams to restore river ecosystems, India faces the challenge of balancing:

• Developmental needs
• Ecological integrity
• Water security

NECESSARY STATIC PART

Inter-State River Water Disputes (ISRWD) Act, 1956

• Enacted: 1956
• Based on: Article 262 of the Constitution

Purpose

• Adjudication of inter-state river water disputes
• Establishment of water dispute tribunals
• Implementation of tribunal awards

Ministry of Jal Shakti

• Formed: 2019
• Headquarters: New Delhi

Functions

• Water resource management
• River basin development
• Drinking water and sanitation
• Inter-state river dispute coordination
• Irrigation and conservation policy

Important Constitutional Provisions

Important Terms

Riparian Principle

Under the riparian doctrine:

A state through which a river naturally flows possesses primary rights over utilisation of that river’s waters.

Watershed

A watershed refers to:

The land area surrounding a drainage basin where precipitation drains into a common outlet.

Updated – 31 March 2026 ; 12:16 PM IST | News Source – Indian Express