• Tidal Volume – Air inhaled or exhaled during normal breathing (~500 mL).
• Vitamin C – Not a proven cure for cancer (no strong clinical evidence).
• Organ of Corti – Sensory organ of hearing, located in the cochlea.
• Hair colour – Due to pigment melanin.
• Hammer, Anvil, Stirrup – Bones of middle ear (Malleus, Incus, Stapes).
• Green leafy vegetables – Good source of iron.
• Sardines – Rich source of Omega-3 fatty acids.
• Thyroxine (T4) – Hormone secreted by thyroid gland.
• Thyroid gland – Regulates metabolic rate (energy release).
• Stapes – Smallest bone in the human body.
• Capillaries – Smallest blood vessels.
• Theophrastus – Father of Botany.
• Femur – Longest bone in the human body (thigh bone).
• Salk vaccine – Developed for Polio.
• Croton – Plant with multi-coloured leaves.
• Ringworm – Caused by a fungus.
• Mosquito – Example of ectoparasite.
• Erythropoietin (EPO) – Stimulates RBC production in bone marrow.
• Cochlea – Converts sound vibrations into electrical signals.
• Quinine – Used to treat malaria.
• Fraternal twins – Formed from two different eggs fertilized by two sperms.
• Measles – Viral disease.
• Syphilis – Bacterial disease.
• Light enters eye – Through the pupil.
• Retina – Light-sensitive layer of the eye (not the lens).
• Pinna – Outer part of ear.
• Antacids – Neutralize excess stomach acid.
• Analgesics – Relieve pain.
• Antibiotics – Treat bacterial infections.
• Islets of Langerhans – Found in pancreas (secrete insulin & glucagon).
• Cocci bacteria – Spherical-shaped bacteria.
• Cholera – Waterborne bacterial disease (caused by Vibrio cholerae).
• Chickenpox – Viral disease (caused by Varicella virus).
• Rheumatism – Affects joints (causes pain & inflammation).
• Jaundice – Liver disorder (yellowing due to bilirubin).
• Leukemia – Cancer affecting blood cells.
• Glaucoma – Eye disease due to increased intraocular pressure.
• Insulin – Produced by pancreas (Islets of Langerhans).
• Golden Rice – Rich in Vitamin A (beta-carotene).
• Maltose – Glucose + Glucose (disaccharide).
• Lactose – Glucose + Galactose (milk sugar).
• Blue-green algae (Cyanobacteria) – Have thylakoid membranes for photosynthesis.
• Wasp & Beetles – Do NOT have true teeth; they have mandibles (chewing mouthparts).
• Theory of Natural Selection – Proposed by Charles Darwin.
• Sartorius – Longest muscle in the human body.
• Olfactory nerve – Responsible for smell.
• Femur – Longest bone in the human body.
• Inner ear – Maintains body balance (semicircular canals).
• Blood groups (ABO system) – Discovered by Karl Landsteiner.
• Mule – Male donkey × Female horse (sterile hybrid).
• Plague – Communicable bacterial disease (Yersinia pestis).
• Leukoderma (Vitiligo) – Skin disease causing white patches.
• Tuberculosis (TB) – Lung disease caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
• Fats – Provide maximum energy (9 kcal/gram).
• Stapedius – Smallest muscle in human body (in ear).
• Colic – Severe abdominal (stomach) pain.
• Neuron – Structural & functional unit of nervous system.
• Globin – Protein part of hemoglobin.

• Vitamin B3 (Niacin) – Deficiency causes Pellagra (3 D’s: Dermatitis, Diarrhea, Dementia).
• Broccoli – Rich source of Vitamin C & Vitamin K.
• Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) – Destroyed by prolonged heating; deficiency causes Beriberi.
• Ammonia – Converted into urea in the liver (Urea cycle).
• Diabetes mellitus – Treated with insulin therapy (Type 1).
• Female reproductive cell – Ovum (egg).
• Ovules (in plants) – Contain female reproductive cells (egg cell).
• Cinchona – Source of Quinine (anti-malarial drug).
• Purkinje fibres – Specialized cardiac muscle fibers that conduct impulses in heart.
• Insulin – Regulates blood glucose level.
• Antibiotics – Drugs produced from microorganisms (e.g., moulds like Penicillium).
• Graafian follicle – Mature follicle found in ovary of mammals.
• Pepsin – Protein-digesting enzyme in stomach.
• Ptyalin (Salivary amylase) – Present in saliva; digests starch.
• Lipase – Secreted mainly by pancreas; digests fats.
• Bullets – Travel at supersonic speed (faster than sound).
• Pancreas – Regulates blood sugar (via insulin & glucagon).
• Ligament – Connects bone to bone.
• Triple Antigen Vaccine (DPT) – Protects against Diphtheria, Pertussis (whooping cough), and Tetanus.

• Cochlea – Converts sound vibrations into electrical nerve impulses.
• Quinine – Used to treat malaria.
• Fraternal twins – Formed when two different ova are fertilized by two sperms.
• Measles – Viral disease.
• Syphilis – Bacterial disease (Treponema pallidum).
• Light enters the eye – Through the pupil.
• Retina – Light-sensitive layer of the eye (not the lens).
• Pinna – Outer ear.
• Antacid – Neutralizes excess stomach acid.
• Analgesic – Reduces pain.
• Antibiotics – Treat bacterial infections.
• Islets of Langerhans – Found in pancreas; secrete insulin & glucagon.
• Cocci bacteria – Spherical in shape.
• Cholera – Waterborne bacterial disease.
• Chickenpox – Viral disease.
• Rheumatism – Affects joints.
• Jaundice – Liver disorder (yellowing due to bilirubin).
• Leukemia – Cancer of blood-forming tissues.
• Glaucoma – Eye disease due to increased intraocular pressure.
• Insulin – Produced by pancreas; regulates blood sugar.
• Golden Rice – Rich in Vitamin A (beta-carotene).
• Maltose – Glucose + Glucose.
• Lactose – Glucose + Galactose.
• Blue-green algae (Cyanobacteria) – Have thylakoid membranes.
• Wasp & Beetles – Have mandibles (not true teeth).
• Theory of Natural Selection – Proposed by Charles Darwin.
• Sartorius – Longest muscle in human body.
• Olfactory nerve – Responsible for smell.
• Femur – Longest bone in human body.
• Inner ear (semicircular canals) – Maintains balance.
• ABO blood group system – Discovered by Karl Landsteiner.
• Mule – Male donkey × Female horse (sterile hybrid).
• Plague – Communicable bacterial disease.
• Leukoderma (Vitiligo) – Skin disease causing white patches.
• Tuberculosis – Lung disease caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
• Fats – Provide maximum energy (9 kcal/g).
• Stapedius – Smallest muscle in human body.
• Colic – Severe abdominal pain.
• Neuron – Nerve cell; structural unit of nervous system.
• Globin – Protein part of hemoglobin.
• Vitamin B3 (Niacin) – Deficiency causes Pellagra.
• Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) – Destroyed by heating; deficiency causes Beriberi.
• Ammonia – Converted to urea in liver.
• Female reproductive cell – Ovum (egg).
• Ovules (plants) – Contain female gamete.
• Cinchona – Source of quinine.
• Purkinje fibers – Conduct electrical impulses in heart.
• Graafian follicle – Mature follicle in ovary.
• Pepsin – Protein-digesting enzyme in stomach.
• Ptyalin (Salivary amylase) – Present in saliva; digests starch.
• Lipase – Secreted by pancreas; digests fats.
• Ligament – Connects bone to bone.
• DPT Vaccine – Protects against Diphtheria, Pertussis & Tetanus.
• Meristematic tissue – Divides to form new cells.
• Cartilage rings in trachea – Prevent collapse of air passage.
• Oesophagus & mouth lining – Stratified squamous epithelium.
• Spirogyra – Reproduces by fragmentation.
• Plastids & Mitochondria – Have their own DNA & ribosomes.
• Malarial parasite (Plasmodium) – Reproduces by multiple fission.
• Sclerenchyma – Provides mechanical strength in plants.

• Longest bone – Femur
• Longest muscle – Sartorius
• Smallest muscle – Stapedius (ear)
• Neuron – Nerve cell (Longest cell in body)
• Ear – Maintains balance
• Olfactory nerve – Smell
• Central Nervous System – Brain + Spinal cord
• Spinal cord – Nervous tissue
• Ligament – Bone to bone
• Arteries – Carry blood away from heart
• Pancreas – Regulates blood sugar
• Insulin – Regulates blood glucose
• Karl Landsteiner – Discovered blood groups
• Globin – Protein part of hemoglobin
• Ammonia → Urea – Converted in Liver
• Diabetes – Treated by Insulin
• Placenta – Nutrition of fetus
• Fallopian Tube – Site of fertilization
• Female gamete – Ovum (egg)
• Graafian follicle – Found in ovary of mammals
• Ureter – Connects kidney to urinary bladder
• Amphibians – 3 chambered heart
• Mature RBC (mammals) – No mitochondria

🦠 Diseases

• Plague – Communicable disease
• Tuberculosis – Lung disease
• Leukoderma – Skin disease
• Pellagra – Deficiency of Vitamin B3 (Niacin)
• Colic – Affects stomach

💊 Vitamins

• Vitamin A – Golden Rice source
• Vitamin B1 – Destroyed by heating
• Vitamin B3 (Niacin) – Pellagra

🧪 Digestive Enzymes

• Pepsin – Stomach
• Ptyalin – Saliva
• Lipase – Pancreas
• Trypsin – Pancreas

🧬 Cell & Genetics

• Prokaryotic cell – Single chromosome
• Mitochondria – ATP production
• Lysosomes – Waste breakdown
• Plastids & Mitochondria – Have own DNA & ribosomes
• Golgi apparatus – Absent in prokaryotes
• Ribosomes – Present in plant & animal cells
• Cell wall – Only plant cell
• Chloroplast – Only plant cell
• Lysosome & Centriole – Only animal cell
• Plasma membrane + Nucleus + Cytoplasm – Both plant & animal cell

🌱 Plant Biology

• Ovule – Female reproductive cell in plants
• Radicle – Develops into primary root
• Vegetative propagation – Stem, root, leaves
• Meristematic tissue – Divides & forms new cells
• Sclerenchyma – Mechanical strength
• Aerenchyma – Air spaces in roots & stems
• Spyrogyra – Fragmentation
• Rhizopus – Genus of fungi (Black bread mold)
• Malaria parasite – Multiple fission
• Germination – Seed develops into plant
• Cartilage rings – Prevent collapse of air passage
• Blood – No role in starch synthesis

• Globin – Protein part of haemoglobin
• Vitamin B3 (Niacin) – Deficiency causes Pellagra
• Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) – Destroyed by heating
• Broccoli – Rich in Vitamin C & Iron
• Ammonia → Urea – Conversion occurs in Liver (Urea cycle)
• Diabetes – Treated by Insulin
• Insulin – Regulates blood sugar
• Pancreas – Secretes insulin & trypsin
• Purkinje fibres – Specialized cardiac muscle fibres (conduct impulses in heart)
• Ligament – Connects bone to bone
• Pepsin – Stomach enzyme
• Ptyalin (Salivary amylase) – Present in saliva
• Lipase – Secreted by pancreas
• Rings of cartilage – Prevent trachea from collapsing
• Oesophagus & mouth lining – Squamous epithelium
• Spinal cord – Nervous tissue
• Brain + Spinal cord – Central Nervous System
• Nerve cell (Neuron) – Longest cell in body
• Dendrite – Receives impulses toward cell body

🧬 REPRODUCTION

• Female reproductive cell (Human) – Ovum (egg)
• Female reproductive cell (Plant) – Ovule
• Graafian follicle – Present in mammalian ovary
• Fallopian Tube – Site of fertilization
• Placenta – Nutrition of fetus
• Radicle – Develops into primary root

🦠 MICROORGANISMS & REPRODUCTION

• Rhizopus – Genus of fungi (Black bread mold)
• Plasmodium – Multiple fission
• Amoeba, Leishmania – Binary fission
• Spyrogyra – Fragmentation
• Antibiotics – Produced from moulds (e.g., Penicillium)

🌱 PLANT BIOLOGY

• Meristematic tissue – Forms & divides new cells
• Sclerenchyma – Mechanical strength
• Aerenchyma – Air spaces in aquatic plants
• Vegetative propagation – Stem, root, leaves
• Germination – Seed develops into plant
• Cell wall – Protection & support
• Plant cells change shape – By water content (Turgidity)
• Plasmolysis – Shrinkage of cell contents due to water loss

🧬 CELL BIOLOGY

• Mitochondria – ATP production
• Plastids & Mitochondria – Have own DNA & ribosomes
• Lysosomes – Waste digestion
• Prokaryotic cell – Single chromosome
• Golgi apparatus – Absent in prokaryotes
• Mature RBC (Mammals) – No mitochondria
• Chromosomes – Thread-like DNA structures controlling traits
• Protoplasm – Term coined by Jan Evangelista Purkyně (1839)

🧪 CHEMISTRY

• Covalent bond– Non-metal + Non-metal
  • Low melting & boiling point
  • Poor conductor
  • Formed by sharing electrons
• CH₃COCH₃ – Propanone (Acetone)
• Calcium density – Greater than water
• Natrium – Latin name of Sodium
• Blast furnace – Iron oxide reduced by Carbon monoxide

🧪 INDICATORS

Methyl Orange

• Acid – Red
• Neutral – Orange
• Base – Yellow

Phenolphthalein

• Acid – Colorless
• Neutral – Colorless
• Base – Pink

Turmeric

• Acid – No change
• Base – Red

🦠 INFECTIOUS DISEASES

🧫 Bacterial Infections

• Gonorrhoea
• Syphilis

🦠 Viral Infections

• Warts
• HIV/AIDS

🤧 Common Cold

• Rhinoviruses – Primary cause of common cold
• Responsible for more than 50% of common cold cases

💊 ANTIBIOTICS

• Penicillin – Marked the beginning of the antibiotic era
• Discovered by Alexander Fleming

🧬 CELL THEORY

• “All cells arise from pre-existing cells” – Proposed by
  Rudolf Virchow

🧪 DIGESTION

• pH of gastric juice – Around 1.2 (Highly acidic due to HCl)

🌬 RESPIRATION

• Respiration – Breakdown of glucose to release energy
• Occurs in mitochondria

🌿 PLANT PHYSIOLOGY

• Transpiration – Water loss through stomata
• Translocation – Movement of sugars (photosynthesis products) through phloem
• Sieve tubes – Transport sugar
• Apical meristem – Increases length of roots & stems
• Parenchyma – Most common permanent tissue
• Tracheids – Elongated tubular xylem cells
• Leucoplasts– Non-pigmented plastids
  • Store starch, oils & proteins
  • Found in non-photosynthetic tissues
• Central vacuole – Maintains turgidity & stores substances
• Chromatin – DNA + Protein in eukaryotic cells
• Plasma membrane – Made of lipids + proteins
• Cell wall – Protection & rigidity

🧠 HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY

• Pituitary gland – Master gland (controls growth & other endocrine glands)
• Alpha cells (Pancreas) – Secrete glucagon (raises blood glucose)
• Oily skin – Sign of puberty in girls (hormonal changes)
• Muscular tissue – Responsible for movement
• Alveoli– Gas exchange by diffusion
  • Oxygen moves from alveoli → blood
  • CO₂ moves from blood → alveoli

🧬 REPRODUCTION

• Budding – Seen in Hydra

🧬 RNA FUNCTION

• tRNA – Carries amino acids to ribosomes
• mRNA – Carries genetic code from DNA to ribosome

🧠 STRUCTURE (Neuron)

• Dendrites – Short & branched
• Receive impulses toward cell body

💉 VACCINE

Triple Antigen Vaccine (DPT) protects against:

• Diphtheria
• Pertussis
• Tetanus

🔊 PHYSICS

• Tone – Single frequency sound
• Bullets – Travel at supersonic speed

🧬 ADDITIONAL IMPORTANT CORRECTIONS

❌ Phloem cells – dead cells →

✅ Phloem contains living cells (except fibres)❌ Blood doesn't play role in starch synthesis →

✅ Correct (Plants synthesize starch in chloroplasts)

🦠 MICROBIOLOGY

• Bacteria – Unicellular, prokaryotic organisms
• Fungi – Mostly multicellular (Yeast is unicellular exception)
• Euglena – Shows both autotrophic & heterotrophic nutrition
• Leishmania– Unicellular protozoan parasite
  • Spread by sandfly bite
  • Causes Leishmaniasis
• Amoeba – Single-celled; digestion in food vacuole
• Fragmentation – Occurs in simple multicellular organisms

🧬 CELL BIOLOGY

• DNA – Large polymer; main genetic material; fragile molecule
• DNA → Primary source of information for protein synthesis
• RNA – Multiple roles (mRNA, tRNA, rRNA; catalytic role – ribozymes)
• Chromosomes (Humans)– 23 pairs
  • 22 pairs autosomes
  • 1 pair sex chromosomes
• Nucleus (Eukaryotic cells) – Double-layered membrane (Nuclear envelope)
• Rough ER – Ribosomes present; protein synthesis
• Smooth ER – Lipid synthesis & detoxification
• Vacuole
  • Storage of food, water & waste
  • In plants → Maintains turgidity

🌿 PLANT BIOLOGY

• After fertilization → Ovary develops into fruit
• Conjoint vascular bundle – Xylem & Phloem present together
• Variation – Necessary for long-term survival of species

🧠 HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY

• Lactic acid accumulation – Causes muscle cramps
• Glycolysis – Glucose breaks into 3-carbon molecule (Pyruvate) in cytoplasm
• Alveoli – Site of gas exchange (O₂ in, CO₂ out)
• Adrenal glands
  • Two glands above kidneys
  • Endocrine glands
  • Secrete adrenaline

🧬 TISSUES

• Epithelial tissue – Protective barrier
• Ligament – Bone to bone
• Many nerve fibres bundled together → Form a nerve

🧪 OTHER IMPORTANT FACTS

• Bubble packs – Made of plastic (PVC + aluminum foil layer)
• Plants – Low energy requirement & slow transport system

🧠 NERVOUS SYSTEM

• Neuron cell body – Contains a single nucleus (not nuclei)
• Dendritic tip – Receives information
• Forebrain – Thinking part of brain
• Reflex arc – Formed in spinal cord
• Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) – Cranial nerves + Spinal nerves + Ganglia
  (Brain & spinal cord = CNS)

🌱 PLANT BIOLOGY

• Cuscuta – Genus of parasitic plants
• Castor & Balsam – Fruits burst open (Explosive dehiscence)
• Meristematic tissue – Vacuoles absent or very small
• Intercalary meristem – Found at nodes; helps regrowth of grasses
• Sugarcane, Rose, Grapes – Vegetative propagation
• Plants – Low energy needs & slow transport system

🧬 TISSUES

• Stratified squamous epithelium – Forms skin
• Striated muscles – Cylindrical, unbranched, multinucleate
• Parenchyma – Most common permanent tissue

🩸 CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

• Arteries
  • Carry blood away from heart
  • Thick & elastic
  • Blood flow is unidirectional
• Blood platelets – Help in clotting
• Diastolic pressure – When heart relaxes
• Plasma – Transports food, CO₂ & nitrogenous wastes in dissolved form
• Blood carries CO₂ to alveoli for removal

🌬 RESPIRATION

• Alveoli – Gas exchange by diffusion
• Loop of Henle – Concentrates urine

🧪 OSMOSIS

• Placing raw mango in concentrated salt solution → Osmosis

🧬 DIGESTION

• Pancreas – Secretes pancreatic juice
• Amylase – Secreted by salivary glands

🧬 ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

• Pituitary gland – Secretes growth hormone (controls body growth)

🦠 MICROBIOLOGY

• Viruses – Lack true cell membrane & cell organelles
• Rhizopus spores – Present in sporangia
• Plasmodium – Invades & destroys RBCs → Causes malaria

👶 REPRODUCTION & CONTRACEPTION

• Earthworm – Sexual reproduction (Hermaphrodite)
• Condom – Mechanical barrier
• Tubectomy – Surgical method (NOT chemical barrier ❌)

👅 SENSE ORGANS

• Gustatory receptors – Sense taste

⚠ Important Correction

❌ Arteries carry blood to all chambers

✅ Arteries carry blood away from heart to body tissues❌ Tubectomy – chemical barrier

✅ Tubectomy is a surgical method of contraception

🧬 GENETICS

• Mendel experiment – Tall vs dwarf plants; Round vs wrinkled seeds
• Conducted by Gregor Mendel

🧪 Chemistry

• Maltose – Glucose + Glucose
• Lactose – Glucose + Galactose
• Covalent bond– Non-metal + Non-metal
  • Low MP & BP
  • Poor conductor
  • Formed by sharing electrons
• CH₃COCH₃ – Propanone (Acetone)
• Calcium density – Greater than water
• Natrium – Latin name of Sodium
• Blast furnace – Iron oxide reduced by Carbon monoxide

🧪 Indicators

Methyl Orange

• Acid – Red
• Neutral – Orange
• Base – Yellow

Phenolphthalein

• Acid – Colorless
• Neutral – Colorless
• Base – Pink

Turmeric

• Acid – No change
• Base – Red

🧬 Other Important Points

• Blue-green algae – Thylakoid membranes
• Bullets – Supersonic speed
• Fats – Give maximum energy
• Triple Antigen Vaccine– Protects from DPT
  • Diphtheria
  • Pertussis
  • Tetanus
• Tone – Single frequency sound
• Mule – Male donkey × Female horse
• Cinchona – Source of Quinine
• Natural Selection Theory – Charles Darwin
• Mendel experiment – Tall plants & round seeds

⚗ Chemistry

• Covalent bond – Formed between non-metals by sharing electrons.
• Covalent compounds – Low MP/BP & poor conductors of electricity.
• CH₃COCH₃ – Propanone (Acetone).
• Calcium – Density greater than water.
• Tone – Sound of single frequency.
• Blast furnace – Iron oxide reduced by carbon monoxide (CO).
• Natrium – Latin name for Sodium (Na).

🧪 Indicators

• Methyl Orange – Red (acid), Orange (neutral), Yellow (base).
• Phenolphthalein – Colorless (acid/neutral), Pink (base).
• Turmeric – Yellow (acid/neutral), Red (base).

Chemistry Part

• Covalent bond – Formed between non-metals by sharing of electrons.
• Covalent compounds generally have:
  • Low melting & boiling points
  • Poor electrical conductivity
  • Weak intermolecular forces