After the decline of the Roman Empire (7th century), the Arabs dominated trade routes through Egypt and Persia, leading to a decline in direct Europe–India contact. The fall of Constantinople (1453) to the Ottoman Turks further strengthened this control, making Indian goods like spices, silk, and precious stones expensive in Europe due to Arab intermediaries. The Red Sea route became a state monopoly, and land routes were also controlled by Arabs, forcing Europeans to search for a direct sea route to India.The Renaissance spirit in 15th century Europe, along with advances in shipbuilding and navigation, encouraged exploration. Economic growth, increased demand for oriental luxury goods, and support from North Europeans and Genoese sailors enabled Portugal and Spain to lead maritime expansion.Prince Henry of Portugal (“Navigator”) played a key role by promoting exploration to bypass Muslim dominance and spread Christianity. The Papal Bull (1454) authorized exploration towards India. The Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) divided the non-Christian world between Portugal (east) and Spain (west), paving the way for Portuguese expansion.In 1487, Bartholomew Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope, proving the route existed. Finally, in 1498, Vasco da Gama reached Calicut, marking the beginning of a new era in world history with direct sea links between Europe and India.
Vasco da Gama arrived at Calicut (1498) with the help of a Gujarati pilot Abdul Majid. The Zamorin of Calicut welcomed him due to Calicut’s role as a trading centre, but Arab traders opposed Portuguese entry.The Portuguese aimed not just to trade but to monopolize eastern trade and eliminate Arab competition. Vasco da Gama’s return to Portugal with huge profits from spices encouraged further European entry into India.
In 1500, Pedro Alvarez Cabral established a factory at Calicut, but conflict arose when locals attacked it. In retaliation, Cabral seized Arab ships, killed crews, and bombarded Calicut, later securing alliances with Cochin and Cannanore.In 1501, Vasco da Gama returned, but relations worsened as he showed hostility towards Arab traders, leading to a complete break with the Zamorin. The Portuguese gradually established trading centres at Calicut, Cochin, and Cannanore and began fortifying them under the pretext of protection.
Francisco de Almeida was appointed as the first Governor of Portuguese India (1505). His objective was to consolidate Portuguese power and destroy Muslim trade by targeting key centres like Aden, Ormuz, and Malacca.He introduced the Blue Water Policy, emphasizing naval supremacy over territorial expansion. In 1507, the Portuguese were defeated at Diu by Egyptian and Gujarat forces, but Almeida avenged the defeat in 1508, establishing dominance in the Indian Ocean.
Afonso de Albuquerque is considered the real founder of Portuguese power in India. He established strategic control over the Indian Ocean by capturing key locations like Goa (1510), which became the first European territorial possession in India.He strengthened control by:
He encouraged intermarriage with Indians, promoted settlement, improved agriculture (coconut, cashew), and strengthened Goa as a commercial hub. He also abolished sati, but his policy of destroying Muslim trade interests created hostility.
Nuno da Cunha shifted the Portuguese capital from Cochin to Goa. During conflicts, Bahadur Shah of Gujarat ceded Bassein (1534) and allowed base at Diu, but relations deteriorated, leading to Bahadur Shah’s killing (1537) by the Portuguese.He also expanded influence in Bengal (Hooghly) by settling Portuguese traders.
The Portuguese succeeded due to:
The Estado Português da India was a significant political and commercial power, often underestimated in Indian history. Within 50 years of Vasco da Gama’s arrival, the Portuguese established control over large coastal areas. They occupied about 60 miles around Goa and controlled a narrow coastal strip from Mumbai to Daman & Diu and Gujarat approaches, including important ports, towns, and villages.In the south, they maintained a chain of fortified seaports like Mangalore, Cannanore, Cochin, and Calicut, ensuring influence over spice-producing regions. On the east coast, they established settlements at San Thome (Chennai) and Nagapatnam, while Hooghly (Bengal) emerged as a major commercial centre by the late 16th century.They also maintained diplomatic relations, exchanging envoys and treaties with Deccan sultans (1570 onwards), and actively influenced power struggles between Vijayanagara, Deccan states, Mughals, and Marathas. Despite early arrival, they were the last Europeans to leave India (1961 – Goa, Daman, Diu recaptured).
The administration was headed by a Viceroy (3-year term), supported by a council and secretary. The Vedor da Fazenda managed revenues, cargo, and fleet dispatch.The empire was divided into fortresses from Africa to China, each governed by captains, assisted by factors (trading agents). Due to communication gaps, these officials often exercised excessive and personal power.
The Portuguese carried strong religious zeal to spread Christianity and showed intolerance towards Muslims, continuing their earlier hostility from North Africa. Initially, they were tolerant towards Hindus, but after the Inquisition in Goa, persecution extended to them as well.Despite this, Jesuit missionaries gained influence at the Mughal court, especially under Akbar, who showed interest in theology.
Under Jahangir, Jesuits initially lost favour but later regained it (1606), conducting baptisms and religious activities freely. However, their hopes of conversion failed, and Portuguese arrogance created tensions with Mughals.
The Portuguese influence declined due to conflicts with the Mughal Empire.
In 1612, the English defeated the Portuguese at sea, impressing Jahangir.
In 1613, Portuguese piracy (capturing Mughal ships) angered the emperor.
Under Shah Jahan, Portuguese privileges were completely lost, along with hopes of religious conversion.
The Portuguese settlement at Hooghly grew powerful, controlling trade, salt production, and customs duties, and engaging in slave trade.After the abduction of two slave girls of Mumtaz Mahal, Shah Jahan ordered action.
This marked a major blow to Portuguese power in Bengal.
Gradually, Portuguese lost their trade monopoly and territories, with Goa losing importance after the fall of Vijayanagara.
| Year | Event |
|---|---|
| 1498 | Vasco da Gama arrives at Calicut |
| 1503 | First fort at Cochin |
| 1505 | Fort at Cannanore |
| 1509 | Victory at Diu (Almeida) |
| 1510 | Goa captured (Albuquerque) |
| 1530 | Goa becomes capital |
| 1535 | Diu captured |
| 1559 | Daman captured |
| 1596 | Dutch oust Portuguese from SE Asia |
| 1612 | English defeat Portuguese at Surat |
| 1663 | Dutch capture Malabar forts |