(NCERT Class 11 – Fundamentals of Physical Geography, Chapter 7)
Landform: Small to medium tracts of the Earth's surface such as valleys, hills, and plains.
Landscape: A combination of several related landforms over a large area.
Evolution of Landforms: Sequential transformation of landforms due to geomorphic processes; comparable to stages of life—youth, mature, old age.
Two key aspects:
The processes shaping landforms (erosion, weathering, deposition, etc.).
The stages of their development or evolution.
| Agent | Major Processes | Example Landforms |
|---|---|---|
| Running Water | Erosion, transportation, deposition | Valleys, gorges, peneplain, deltas |
| Groundwater | Solution, precipitation | Sinkholes, caves, stalactites |
| Glaciers | Abrasion, plucking | Cirques, moraines, drumlins |
| Waves | Erosion and deposition | Cliffs, beaches, spits, lagoons |
| Wind | Deflation, abrasion | Pediments, dunes, loess |
Valleys: Form from rills → gullies → V-shaped valleys → gorges → canyons.
Potholes/Plunge Pools: Circular depressions formed by swirling pebbles.
Incised Meanders: Deep meanders cut into rock surfaces.
River Terraces: Remnants of old floodplains at higher levels.
Alluvial Fan: Cone-shaped deposit of coarse material at mountain base.
Floodplain: Flat area of fine deposits along a river.
Natural Levees: Raised banks formed during floods.
Point Bars (Meander Bars): Deposits on the inner bends of meanders.
Deltas: Deposits at river mouths, graded from coarse to fine sediments.
Sinkholes (Dolines): Funnel-shaped depressions formed by solution.
Uvalas: Merged sinkholes.
Limestone Pavement/Lapies: Grooved surfaces formed by solution.
Caves: Formed along bedding planes due to dissolution.
Stalactites: Deposits hanging from the cave ceiling.
Stalagmites: Deposits rising from the cave floor.
Columns or Pillars: Formed when stalactites and stalagmites join.
Cirque (Corrie): Bowl-shaped hollow where glacier originates.
Horn: Sharp peak formed by several cirques (e.g., Matterhorn).
Arête: Knife-edge ridge between cirques.
U-shaped Valley: Glacial trough formed by erosion.
Fjord: Submerged U-shaped valley.
Moraines: Ridges of debris; types include terminal, lateral, medial, ground.
Eskers: Long sinuous ridges formed by meltwater streams.
Drumlins: Elongated hills with a steep stoss and gentle lee side.
Outwash Plains: Stratified deposits beyond terminal moraine.
Sea Cliffs, Wave-cut Terraces, Sea Caves, Stacks.
Beaches, Bars, Barrier Bars, Spits, Lagoons, Coastal Plains.
Pediments: Gently sloping rock surfaces at mountain bases.
Pediplains: Coalesced pediments forming broad plains.
Mushroom Rocks, Yardangs: Streamlined ridges shaped by wind erosion.
Sand Dunes: Types include barchans, longitudinal, and parabolic.
Loess: Fine, wind-blown silt deposits.