MAHATMA GANDHI AND THE NATIONALIST MOVEMENT

THEME 11 – MAHATMA GANDHI AND THE NATIONALIST MOVEMENT

(Civil Disobedience and Beyond)

1. A LEADER ANNOUNCES HIMSELF (1915–1916)

Gandhi’s Return (1915)

  • Returned to India in January 1915 after about 20 years in South Africa.

  • In South Africa, he:

    • Developed the concept of Satyagraha (non-violent resistance).

    • Worked for Hindu–Muslim unity and social reform (against untouchability and gender bias).

    • Gained valuable leadership experience.

Political Context in India

  • India under British rule but a strong political awakening was emerging.

  • Indian National Congress (INC) active in many towns.

  • Swadeshi Movement (1905–07) had broadened nationalist appeal.

  • Major leaders: Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal (“Lal-Bal-Pal”).

    • Advocated militant nationalism.

  • Moderates like G.K. Gokhale (Gandhi’s mentor) and M.A. Jinnah followed constitutional methods.

Gandhi’s Early Observations

  • On Gokhale’s advice, Gandhi toured India for one year to understand the conditions.

  • First major public speech: at Banaras Hindu University (BHU) in February 1916.

BHU Speech (1916)

  • Audience: Princes, landlords, elites, Annie Besant, etc.

  • Gandhi criticized:

    • The elitist nature of Indian nationalism.

    • The neglect of peasants and workers.

  • Urged the privileged to serve the poor.

  • Marked Gandhi’s intent to make nationalism mass-based and inclusive.

2. THE MAKING AND UNMAKING OF NON-COOPERATION (1917–1922)

Early Local Movements

  1. Champaran Satyagraha (1917) – Bihar

    • Problem: Indigo planters forcing peasants to grow indigo.

    • Objective: Secure freedom to choose crops and fair treatment.

    • Outcome: Partial success; established Gandhi’s leadership.

  2. Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918) – Gujarat

    • Workers demanded higher wages and better conditions.

    • Gandhi used fast unto death to mediate successfully.

  3. Kheda Satyagraha (1918) – Gujarat

    • Peasants demanded remission of land tax after poor harvest.

    • Outcome: Partial success; enhanced Gandhi’s popularity among peasants.

3. THE ROWLATT SATYAGRAHA (1919)

Background

  • Post–World War I, British enacted Rowlatt Act (1919) – allowed detention without trial and press censorship.

  • Based on recommendations of the Rowlatt Committee.

Gandhi’s Response

  • Called for nationwide hartal (strike).

  • Marked the first all-India mass protest.

  • Resulted in widespread unrest, particularly in Punjab.

Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (April 13, 1919)

  • Amritsar: Peaceful gathering fired upon by General Dyer.

  • Over 400 killed.

  • Became the symbol of colonial brutality.

  • Gandhi suspended agitation to prevent further violence.

  • Emerged as a national leader.

4. NON-COOPERATION MOVEMENT (1920–1922)

Background

  • Continued British repression after Rowlatt Satyagraha.

  • Khilafat Movement (1919–20) launched by Ali brothers (Muhammad & Shaukat Ali) to defend the Turkish Caliph.

  • Gandhi merged Khilafat and Non-Cooperation to strengthen Hindu–Muslim unity.

Programme of Non-Cooperation

  • Boycott of:

    • Government schools, law courts, offices, and foreign cloth.

  • Promotion of:

    • Swadeshi, village industries, and self-reliance.

  • Gandhi claimed Swaraj could be achieved within one year through full cooperation.

Popular Response

  • Students left government institutions.

  • Lawyers like C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru gave up practice.

  • Workers went on strike — 396 strikes in 1921 involving over 6 lakh workers.

  • Peasants and tribals protested:

    • Awadh – no tax movement.

    • Andhra hill tribes – violated forest laws.

    • Kumaun – refused to carry loads for British officials.

  • The movement became a mass-based people’s struggle.

Chauri Chaura Incident (February 1922)

  • Peasants set fire to a police station; 22 policemen killed.

  • Gandhi immediately called off the movement, condemning violence.

  • Arrested in March 1922; sentenced to six years in prison for sedition.

Judge Broomfield’s Remark

  • Described Gandhi as a patriot of high ideals and saintly life.

5. OUTCOME AND SIGNIFICANCE

  • Gandhi transformed Indian nationalism from elite to mass-based.

  • Non-Cooperation Movement was the largest challenge to British rule since 1857.

  • Proved the power of non-violence, discipline, and unity.

  • Gandhi became recognized as the leader of the nation.

QUICK TIMELINE SUMMARY

YearEventPlaceSignificance
1915Gandhi returns to India—Beginning of Indian political work
1916BHU SpeechBanarasCritique of elitist nationalism
1917Champaran SatyagrahaBiharFirst peasant struggle
1918Ahmedabad Mill StrikeGujaratLabour rights
1918Kheda SatyagrahaGujaratPeasant tax relief
1919Rowlatt SatyagrahaPan-IndiaAnti-repression movement
1919Jallianwala Bagh MassacrePunjabTurning point
1920–22Non-Cooperation & KhilafatAll IndiaFirst nationwide mass movement
1922Chauri Chaura IncidentU.P.Movement suspended



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Part 2

1. GANDHI’S MASS APPEAL AND SYMBOLISM

Identification with the Masses

  • Gandhi earned the title “Mahatma” because people saw him as one of their own.

  • He dressed like common Indians, wearing a simple dhoti or loincloth, unlike other nationalist leaders who wore formal or Western attire.

  • He lived simply, spoke Indian languages, and empathised with peasants and workers.

  • Spent part of each day spinning on the charkha, symbolising dignity of labour and equality.

Symbolism of the Charkha and Khadi

  • The charkha (spinning wheel) became the icon of Indian nationalism.

  • Represented:

    • Self-reliance and simplicity.

    • Breaking caste barriers (mental and manual labour).

    • Resistance to industrial capitalism and foreign goods.

  • Gandhi was critical of machine-based modern civilisation, calling it exploitative.

  • Believed in regulated use of machinery for the service of the poorest.

  • Khadi symbolised economic independence, moral purity, and self-respect.

2. POPULAR PERCEPTIONS AND RUMOURS ABOUT GANDHI

Folk Beliefs and Miraculous Image

  • Among peasants of eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, Gandhi was seen as a divine figure or saviour.

  • Local newspapers (like in Gorakhpur) recorded rumours of miracles during Gandhi’s visits in 1921. Examples:

    • Sugarcane pans splitting miraculously.

    • Wheat turning into sesame overnight.

    • Critics’ houses catching fire or crops failing.

  • Gandhi was often called “Gandhi Baba,” “Gandhi Maharaj,” or “Mahatma.”

Interpretation

  • These rumours reflected the deep faith and hopes of the rural poor.

  • Gandhi’s ascetic lifestyle, charkha, and simple clothing enhanced his divine image.

  • He appeared as a protector of peasants, a moral reformer, and a symbol of justice.

3. ORGANISATIONAL EXPANSION AND GANDHIAN NATIONALISM

Congress Reorganisation

  • Gandhi transformed Congress into a mass-based organisation.

  • Congress committees were reorganised on linguistic lines, not colonial provinces.

  • Praja Mandals were formed in princely states to spread the nationalist message.

  • Nationalist propaganda was carried out in vernacular languages.

Social Composition of Support

  • Movement attracted both peasants and industrialists:

    • Peasants: Saw Gandhi as a saviour from taxes and oppression.

    • Industrialists (e.g., G.D. Birla): Supported nationalism to end British monopoly.

  • Gandhi’s appeal cut across class, caste, and region.

Role of Associates (1917–1922)

  • Close associates helped spread Gandhian ideas:

    • Vallabhbhai Patel, Jawaharlal Nehru, Abul Kalam Azad, Subhas Chandra Bose, C. Rajagopalachari, Sarojini Naidu, J.B. Kripalani, Mahadev Desai, Govind Ballabh Pant.

  • Represented diverse regions and religions, reflecting inclusive nationalism.

4. GANDHI AS A SOCIAL REFORMER (1922–1929)

  • After Non-Cooperation (ended 1922), Gandhi focused on constructive work:

    • Promotion of Khadi and village industries.

    • Abolition of untouchability.

    • Hindu–Muslim harmony.

    • Campaigns against child marriage and social evils.

  • Believed that political freedom required moral and social regeneration.

5. THE SALT SATYAGRAHA (1930)

Background

  • By late 1920s, political momentum revived:

    • 1928: Opposition to the Simon Commission (all-White).

    • 1929: Lahore Session of Congress – Jawaharlal Nehru as President; adoption of “Purna Swaraj” (Complete Independence).

    • 26 January 1930: First Independence Day celebrated with flag hoisting and pledges for freedom.

Significance of Salt

  • Gandhi chose salt as the issue for civil disobedience because:

    • It was a basic necessity of life for all.

    • The salt tax symbolised colonial exploitation of the poor.

    • The monopoly deprived people of a natural village industry.

    • The tax rate was extremely high (sometimes 1000% of cost).

    • The government destroyed naturally formed salt to prevent untaxed use.

The Dandi March (12 March – 6 April 1930)

  • 12 March 1930: Gandhi began his 241-mile march from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi (Gujarat coast) with 78 volunteers.

  • Collected a fistful of natural salt on 6 April 1930, symbolically breaking the law.

  • Sparked nationwide civil disobedience – people made salt, boycotted foreign goods, refused to pay taxes.

  • British government initially underestimated the movement.

Broader Impact

  • Became a pan-Indian mass movement uniting all sections of society.

  • Demonstrated Gandhi’s political tact and symbolic strategy.

  • The Salt Satyagraha turned Gandhi into a global symbol of peaceful resistance.

6. GANDHI’S IDEAS ON ECONOMY AND SOCIETY

  • Rejected the “craze for machinery” that displaced human labour.

  • Favoured self-sufficient village economies over industrial capitalism.

  • Criticised concentration of wealth in few hands.

  • Saw Khadi and Charkha as tools for both economic independence and social equality.

7. KEY TAKEAWAYS (UPSC SUMMARY)

AspectDetails
Symbol of nationalismCharkha, Dhoti, Khadi
Mass appealIdentification with peasants; divine image
Reform focus (1922–29)Khadi, untouchability, communal harmony
Political revival (1929–30)Lahore Session → Purna Swaraj
Salt Satyagraha significanceMass mobilisation, symbolic protest against colonial economic exploitation
Core ideologyNon-violence, self-reliance, decentralisation

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Part 3


Salt March and Civil Disobedience (1930–34)

1. Wider Participation and Protests

  • The Salt March inspired diverse social groups beyond the official Congress campaign.

  • Peasants defied colonial forest laws, factory workers went on strike, lawyers boycotted British courts, and students left government schools.

  • Gandhi’s appeal reached across classes, symbolising collective discontent with colonial rule.

  • Nearly 60,000 Indians were arrested, including Gandhi himself.

2. Gandhi’s Speech at Dandi (5 April 1930)

  • Gandhi acknowledged uncertainty about reaching Dandi, expressing faith in non-violence and truth.

  • Praised the British for not arresting the marchers out of “fear of world opinion.”

  • Declared intent to break the salt law the next day.

  • Emphasised moral courage over physical confrontation.

  • Asserted that even if leaders were arrested, the movement would continue through people’s participation.

  • Reflected Gandhi’s view of the colonial state as morally weak, restrained only by fear of global disapproval.

3. Social and Moral Message of the March

  • At Wasna, Gandhi linked Swaraj to social reform, calling on upper castes to serve untouchables.

  • Stressed Hindu–Muslim–Parsi–Sikh unity as essential for true Swaraj.

  • Police reports noted huge attendance, including women and officials who resigned from British posts.

4. Global and Media Perception

  • The American magazine Time initially mocked Gandhi as frail and “saintly.”

  • Later, it recognised him as a “Saint and Statesman,” acknowledging his moral power.

  • The British administration grew increasingly anxious over the movement’s popularity.

Significance of the Salt March

  1. International Recognition:

    • Brought Gandhi global fame and media coverage.

    • Exposed British moral vulnerability.

  2. Women’s Participation:

    • For the first time, women like Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay played a central role.

    • Women broke salt and liquor laws, facing imprisonment.

  3. Political Impact:

    • Made the British realise their rule could not continue indefinitely.

    • Led to the initiation of Round Table Conferences in London to discuss constitutional reforms.

Gandhi-Irwin Pact (March 1931)

  • Gandhi released from prison in January 1931, met Viceroy Lord Irwin in February.

  • Agreement terms:

    • Suspension of Civil Disobedience Movement.

    • Release of political prisoners.

    • Legalisation of salt manufacture along the coast.

  • Criticism:

    • Radical nationalists felt it gained too little.

    • No British commitment to political independence.

Second Round Table Conference (London, 1931)

  • Gandhi attended as the sole representative of the Indian National Congress.

  • His claim to represent all Indians was challenged by:

    • Muslim League (minority representation).

    • Princes (autonomous territories).

    • Dr. B.R. Ambedkar (Depressed Classes).

  • The conference was inconclusive; Gandhi returned to India and resumed Civil Disobedience.

Debate on Separate Electorates

Gandhi’s View:

  • Opposed separate electorates for Depressed Classes.

  • Believed it would perpetuate untouchability and prevent social integration.

Ambedkar’s View:

  • Supported political representation for Depressed Classes.

  • Saw it as essential for social protection and empowerment against caste tyranny.

  • Argued that Hindu society systematically restricted mobility for lower castes.

Aftermath (1932–1939)

  • New Viceroy Lord Willingdon took harsh measures against Gandhi and Congress.

  • Government of India Act, 1935 introduced provincial autonomy.

  • Elections of 1937: Congress formed ministries in 8 of 11 provinces.

World War II and Political Crisis

  • In 1939, Britain declared India at war without consulting Indian leaders.

  • Gandhi and Nehru condemned fascism but demanded a promise of post-war independence.

  • The British refused; Congress ministries resigned in protest (October 1939).

  • Between 1940–41, Congress launched Individual Satyagrahas demanding freedom.

Emergence of Three-Way Political Conflict

  • By 1940, the struggle was not just Indians vs. British but Congress vs. Muslim League vs. British.

  • Muslim League’s Lahore Resolution (March 1940):

    • Demanded autonomy for Muslim-majority regions—seed of Pakistan demand.

  • British politics divided:

    • Labour Party sympathetic to Indian aspirations.

    • Conservative PM Winston Churchill opposed decolonisation.

Cripps Mission (1942)

  • Sent by Churchill to negotiate with Indian leaders.

  • Congress demanded an Indian Defence Member in the Viceroy’s Executive Council.

  • Talks failed due to British refusal to share real power.

  • 4. Quit India Movement (1942–44)

    Background

    • Launched after the failure of the Cripps Mission (1942).

    • Gandhi initiated his third major movement against British rule — the Quit India campaign.

    • Began in August 1942 with the call of “Do or Die.”

    Course of the Movement

    • Gandhi and top Congress leaders were arrested immediately.

    • Leadership shifted to younger activists who organised strikes, sabotage, and underground networks.

    • Key socialist leaders: Jayaprakash Narayan, Ram Manohar Lohia, and Aruna Asaf Ali.

    • “Independent governments” were proclaimed in several districts like:

      • Satara (Maharashtra)

      • Medinipur (Bengal)

    • The British used severe repression, taking more than a year to suppress the rebellion.

    Nature and Impact

    • Became a genuine mass movement involving workers, peasants, students, and women.

    • Energised the youth—many left colleges to participate.

    • Despite repression, it marked the final upsurge before independence.

    • During the movement, the Muslim League expanded its influence, especially in Punjab and Sind.

    The Satara ‘Prati Sarkar’ (Parallel Government, 1943–46)

    • Established in Satara district, Maharashtra during the Quit India phase.

    • Functioned as a parallel government (Prati Sarkar).

    • Organised by younger leaders with:

      • Volunteer corps (Seba dals)

      • Village units (Tufan dals)

    • Activities included:

      • Running people’s courts.

      • Organising constructive work like local justice and social reforms.

    • Social base: Kunbi peasants and Dalit support.

    • Operated till the 1946 elections, despite government suppression and later Congress disapproval.

    Negotiations and Political Developments (1944–47)

    • Gandhi released in June 1944 due to ill health; began talks with Jinnah to bridge Congress–League divide.

    • 1945: Labour government in Britain committed to granting Indian independence.

    • Lord Wavell convened the Simla Conference (1945) — failed to reconcile Congress–League demands.

    Provincial Elections (1946)

    • Congress: Swept General seats.

    • Muslim League: Won overwhelmingly in Muslim-reserved seats.

    • Marked complete political polarisation.

    Cabinet Mission (1946)

    • Sent by British government to propose a federal union while keeping India united.

    • Failed due to disagreement between Congress and Muslim League.

    Direct Action Day (16 August 1946)

    • Called by Muslim League to press for Pakistan.

    • Resulted in communal riots in Calcutta, spreading to Bengal, Bihar, U.P., and Punjab.

    • Mutual violence between Hindus and Muslims intensified.

    Towards Independence and Partition (1947)

    • February 1947: Lord Mountbatten replaced Wavell as Viceroy.

    • After failed negotiations, Mountbatten announced Partition and Transfer of Power on 15 August 1947.

    • India achieved independence, but with division into India and Pakistan.

    • Delhi witnessed celebrations; Mahatma Gandhi, however, abstained from festivities.

    5. The Last Heroic Days (1947–48)

    Gandhi’s Response to Partition

    • Spent 15 August 1947 in Calcutta, fasting and praying for communal peace.

    • Deeply pained by the violence and displacement following Partition.

    • Visited refugee camps and riot-hit areas, urging reconciliation among Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs.

    Congress Resolution on Minorities

    • Passed under Gandhi and Nehru’s initiative.

    • Declared India to be a democratic and secular state, ensuring:

      • Full rights and state protection to all citizens irrespective of religion.

      • Rejection of the two-nation theory.

    Gandhi’s Final Efforts

    • Tried to restore communal harmony in Delhi and Punjab.

    • Faced hostility from refugees who opposed his efforts for Muslim protection.

    • Survived an assassination attempt on 20 January 1948.

    Gandhi’s Death

    • 30 January 1948: Assassinated by Nathuram Godse, a Hindu extremist.

    • Gandhi’s martyrdom provoked nationwide grief and global tributes.

    • Time magazine compared his death to that of Abraham Lincoln, both killed by fanatics for their belief in equality.

    6. Knowing Gandhi: Sources and Interpretations

    (a) Public and Private Writings

    • Gandhi’s writings, speeches, and letters form major sources of his thought and political journey.

    • Public writings (e.g., speeches, articles in Harijan) reflect his public voice and ideals.

    • Private letters reveal personal emotions, frustrations, and reflections.

    • However, distinction between public and private often blurred:

      • Gandhi frequently published letters sent to him.

      • Many letters were written with the awareness that they might be made public.

    (b) Other Contemporary Sources

    • Works of contemporaries: Jawaharlal Nehru, C. Rajagopalachari, Rabindranath Tagore, Subhas Bose, etc.

    • Government intelligence reports, newspapers, and memoirs add multiple perspectives on Gandhi’s role.

    • Scholarly works later assessed his impact on nationalism, social reform, and moral politics.

    Would you like me to now prepare UPSC-style MCQs (numbered from 16 onwards) based on these notes?




  • 7. Understanding the Congress Through Letters (Source 7)

    Context: The Congress and Ideological Tensions (1930s)

    • By the mid-1930s, internal differences within the Indian National Congress intensified.

    • Jawaharlal Nehru returned from Europe in 1928, influenced deeply by socialism and impressed by the Soviet Union’s model.

    • Began working with socialist leaders like:

      • Jayaprakash Narayan

      • Acharya Narendra Dev

      • N.G. Ranga

  • The Congress Divide

    • Emergence of two ideological groups:

      • Socialists: Nehru, Jayaprakash Narayan, Narendra Dev – advocated pro-worker and pro-peasant policies.

      • Conservatives: Sardar Patel, Rajendra Prasad – represented moderate and pragmatic leadership.

    • Industrialists and conservative leaders feared Nehru’s socialist rhetoric.

    • When Nehru became Congress President (1936), he spoke strongly against fascism and for social and economic justice, alarming conservatives.

  • The Correspondence (1936):

    1. Jawaharlal Nehru to Mahatma Gandhi (5 July 1936, Allahabad)

    • Expressed mental and physical exhaustion from political tensions.

    • Felt isolated and misunderstood within the Working Committee.

    • Admitted that his socialist convictions were integral to his worldview and not temporary opinions.

    • Criticised by colleagues for stressing poverty and unemployment issues too much.

    • Thanked Gandhi for mediating and avoiding a party crisis.

    • Welcomed Gandhi’s plan to issue a clarifying public statement.

  • 2. Rajendra Prasad to Nehru (1 July 1936, Wardha)

    • Acknowledged Nehru’s feelings of hurt but clarified conservatives’ stance.

    • Conservatives agreed to withdraw their resignation after Gandhi’s mediation.

    • Claimed Nehru had been speaking more for a minority socialist view than as the neutral voice of Congress President.

    • Complained of being marginalised and ridiculed by socialists.

    • Felt that Nehru failed to protect senior colleagues from disrespect and ideological attacks.

  • 3. Mahatma Gandhi to Nehru (15 July 1936, Segaon)

    • Served as a mediator and moral counsellor.

    • Advised Nehru to overcome irritability, impatience, and a sense of superiority.

    • Urged him to restore humour and light-heartedness in political dealings.

    • Encouraged him to wear the “crown of thorns” (Congress Presidentship) with patience and grace.

    • Suggested that Nehru’s colleagues feared his intensity, not his ideas alone.

  • Analytical Insights from the Letters

    1. Evolution of Congress Ideals:

      • The Congress was no longer a purely political organisation; it became a forum of ideological debate between socialism and traditional nationalism.

      • Reflected the transition of the freedom struggle from political liberation to socio-economic reconstruction.

    2. Role of Mahatma Gandhi:

      • Functioned as a moderator and moral guide balancing radical and conservative factions.

      • His leadership style relied on personal persuasion, empathy, and mediation rather than authority.

    3. Nature of the National Movement:

      • Demonstrates the democratic and plural character of the Indian National Congress.

      • Reveals the presence of internal dissent, yet also the ability to resolve conflicts through dialogue.

    4. Value of Private Correspondence as Source Material:

      • Letters reveal emotions, personal struggles, and ideological evolution beyond public speeches.

      • Provide intimate insights into the working style, personality, and tensions within the Congress leadership.

  • 8. Framing a Picture: Autobiographies as Sources (Section 6.2)

    Nature of Autobiographical Sources

    • Autobiographies are retrospective accounts—written from memory and personal reflection.

    • Offer human detail, emotional tone, and self-representation of leaders.

    • Examples include:

      • The Story of My Experiments with Truth – Mahatma Gandhi

      • An Autobiography: Toward Freedom – Jawaharlal Nehru

  • Critical Perspective

    • They must be read with historical caution:

      • Selective recall — authors include what they see as important.

      • Possible omissions or silences — deliberate or subconscious.

      • Reveal how individuals wished to be remembered, not necessarily the complete truth.

    • Autobiography thus serves as both a historical document and a self-constructed narrative.

  • 9. Through Police Eyes: Colonial Intelligence Reports (Section 6.3)

    Nature of the Sources

    • The colonial state maintained detailed surveillance on nationalist leaders.

    • Reports, letters, and memos by British police and officials—once confidential, now available in archives.

    • Example: Fortnightly Reports of the Home Department (early 20th century).

  • Insight from Fortnightly Reports: The Salt March (1930)

    • British authorities viewed the Civil Disobedience Movement as:

      • Theatrical and impractical.

      • Lacking real mass enthusiasm.

      • A “drama” rather than a genuine uprising.

    • Reports from provinces like Bengal, Madras, and Central Provinces described:

      • Peasants busy with harvest, students with exams — implying public apathy.

      • Minor excitement at meetings, but no widespread unrest.

      • Recognition of Gandhi’s personal reverence among Hindus, yet scepticism about his strategy.

  • Contrast with Reality

    • Contradicted by photographs, newspapers, and participants’ accounts showing:

      • Mass mobilisation, women’s participation, and civil resistance.

      • Real social awakening and political engagement across India.

    • Reveals colonial bias: the British often downplayed Indian political consciousness to reassure themselves of control.

  • Analytical Significance

    1. Bias of Colonial Records:

      • Reflected official anxieties and prejudices rather than ground realities.

      • Useful for understanding colonial mentality and administrative perceptions, not just events.

    2. Cross-verification in Historical Research:

      • Must be read against other sources—letters, newspapers, oral testimonies—to reconstruct the full picture.

    3. Contribution to Historical Understanding:

      • Provides a counterpoint to nationalist narratives, highlighting how the Raj perceived and responded to dissent.

  • Summary: Value of Multiple Sources

    Type of SourceExampleHistorical ValueLimitations
    Private LettersNehru–Gandhi correspondenceReveals inner conflicts, emotions, and leadership dynamicsSubjective; emotionally charged
    AutobiographiesGandhi’s Experiments with TruthProvides self-perception, motivationsSelective memory; self-censorship
    Official ReportsHome Dept. Fortnightly ReportsReflects colonial viewpoint, state surveillanceBiased, dismissive of Indian agency


  • 10. The Salt March and Colonial Perceptions (1930)

    Context

    • The Salt March (Dandi March) began on 12 March 1930, led by Mahatma Gandhi from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi (Gujarat).

    • It marked the launch of the Civil Disobedience Movement, a nationwide campaign against the salt tax and broader colonial injustice.

  • British Administrative Response (From Fortnightly Reports)

    • Colonial reports viewed the march as “theatrical,” “dramatic,” and “impractical.”

    • Officials believed there was no genuine mass enthusiasm—peasants were “busy with harvest” and students with “exams.”

    • Reports reflected a dismissive tone, intended to reassure higher authorities that there was no imminent threat.

    • Nevertheless, officials feared Gandhi’s symbolic power and the potential for mass mobilisation if he was arrested.

  • Contrast with Ground Reality

    • Contrary to the reports, the march inspired mass civil disobedience across India.

    • Women, students, and villagers participated actively—burning foreign cloth, boycotting liquor, and refusing to pay taxes.

    • Newspapers and photographs documented the awakening of popular nationalism.

  • Analytical Insights

    AspectColonial PerceptionHistorical Reality
    Nature of movementTheatrical, leader-centricBroad-based, participatory
    Popular supportMinimalExtensive across provinces
    Gender participationIgnoredWomen’s visible leadership
    ImpactTemporary disturbanceLong-term political awakening

    11. Reading Colonial Sources Critically

    Nature of Colonial Records

    • Compiled by British police, collectors, and officials to monitor nationalist activities.

    • Designed primarily for administrative control and intelligence, not objective history.

    • Reports included Home Department fortnightly summaries, CID letters, and District Confidential Notes.

  • Biases and Limitations

    • Reflected the colonial state’s fears and prejudices.

    • Tended to underestimate popular participation and dismiss nationalist motives as “misguided.”

    • Often presented Gandhi’s satyagraha as harmless spectacle or “public nuisance.”

  • Historical Value

    • Despite biases, they provide:

      • Evidence of how the British perceived Indian nationalism.

      • Insight into official anxieties and the colonial mindset.

      • Data on regional trends—locations of protests, arrests, or unrest.

  • Need for Cross-verification

    • Historians use these sources alongside letters, newspapers, and oral histories.

    • Helps reconstruct a balanced and multi-perspective account of the national movement.

      12. Comparative Value of Sources in Studying Gandhi and the National Movement

      Type of SourceExampleStrengthsLimitations
      Private CorrespondenceNehru–Gandhi–Prasad letters (1936)Reveals emotional tone, internal rifts, leadership styleSubjective; influenced by personal feelings
      AutobiographiesGandhi’s My Experiments with Truth, Nehru’s Toward FreedomOffers personal motivations and self-reflectionSelective recall; self-censorship
      Official ReportsHome Department Fortnightly ReportsShows colonial perceptions, intelligence patternsBiased; downplays Indian agency
      Newspapers & PhotographsKesari, Young India, press coverage of Salt MarchCapture public sentiment and imageryMay exaggerate or romanticise events
      Oral TestimoniesAccounts from participants and local activistsAdd local, human dimensionsMemory distortions over time

      13. Key Takeaways

    • The nationalist movement evolved as a broad democratic forum—including ideological debates, social reform, and mass mobilisation.

    • Gandhi’s leadership blended political strategy with moral persuasion and interpersonal mediation.

    • The 1930s reflected not only the struggle against colonial rule but also the struggle within Indian political thought—between socialism, conservatism, and Gandhian ethics.

    • Historical understanding requires multiple sources—each revealing a distinct layer of truth.

    • Reading colonial records critically helps uncover the psychology of empire—its denial, anxiety, and self-justification.