(Theme 7: An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara – NCERT Class 12, EXACT COVERAGE)
Vijayanagara (Hampi) served as the capital of the empire founded in 1336 CE by Harihara and Bukka of the Sangama dynasty.
The empire lasted more than three centuries until its decline after the Battle of Talikota (1565).
Vijayanagara represented a political, military, economic, and cultural centre of southern India.
The capital itself was one of the largest cities in the world during the 15th–16th centuries.
Geography (hill ranges, rivers, boulders) shaped both the urban design and the defensive planning.
(EXACT NCERT breakdown)
Inscriptions and Epigraphs
Epigraphs found on temples, boulders, slabs, pillars.
Include royal orders, donations, land grants, temple records.
Multilingual: Sanskrit, Tamil, Kannada, Telugu.
Archaeological Excavations
Excavation reveals structures such as:
Temple basements
Elephant stables
Palaces (foundations remain)
Water tanks
Market streets
Much of superstructure destroyed after 1565.
Monuments and Material Remains
Surviving temples, gateways (gopurams), mandapas, shrines, and fort walls.
Stone architecture allows reconstruction of urban layout.
Court Chronicles (Indigenous Texts)
Writings in Telugu, Kannada, Sanskrit.
Chronicles record the rule of kings, military campaigns, and administrative arrangements.
Foreign Traveller Accounts
Abdur Razzaq (Persian Ambassador, 1440s)
Describes the seven-tiered fortification system.
Notes city size, population, and architectural splendour.
Nicolo Conti (Italian Traveller)
Mentions thriving commercial activity.
Domingo Paes (Portuguese Trader, early 16th century)
Eyewitness account during Krishnadevaraya’s rule.
Detailed descriptions of markets, festivals, horses, economy, and military.
Fernao Nuniz
Provides genealogies of rulers.
Describes administrative mechanisms and revenue.
Built within a rugged, rocky landscape of granite boulders and hill formations.
River Tungabhadra flowed along the city, providing water access and natural defence.
The landscape acted as an organic fortification, complementing man-made walls.
Agricultural zones existed within outer fort walls—unique in world urbanism.
The Sacred Centre was located near the Tungabhadra River, containing major temples.
Oldest functioning temple since early centuries CE.
Became the royal family's ceremonial centre.
Expanded through gopurams, mandapas, pillared halls.
Important for yearly festivals (marriage of Virupaksha).
Largest and most ornate of Vijayanagara.
Renowned for:
Musical pillars
Stone chariot
Large, intricately carved mandapas
Represented pinnacle of Vijayanagara temple architecture.
Built by Krishnadevaraya after his eastern campaign victory.
Iconography of Balakrishna installed.
Royal temple, located inside Royal Centre.
Famous for Ramayana narrative friezes carved on outer walls.
Used for royal rituals.
The Royal Centre included palaces, audience halls, pavilions, and pleasure gardens.
Built mostly from timber and other perishable materials.
Stone basements remain — actual superstructures missing.
Represents Indo-Islamic architectural blend.
Arched openings, symmetrical design.
11 interconnected domed chambers.
Example of Islamic influence on royal architecture.
Tall platform for royal ceremonies.
Used during Mahanavami (Navaratri).
Depicts processions, wrestling, hunting scenes.
Vijayanagara had one of the most elaborate fortification systems.
Seven concentric fort walls described by travellers.
Walls integrated natural granite boulders.
Enclosed:
Settlement areas
Agricultural fields
Tanks
Military cantonments
Gates decorated with watchtowers and flanking turrets.
Tanks, reservoirs, canals, check-dams.
Used locally available granite to construct bunds.
Famous tanks mentioned:
Kamala-pura Tank
Manmatha Tank
Enabled cultivation inside fort walls.
Crops: paddy, sugarcane, betel, bananas.
Intensive cultivation supported large urban population.
Markets built directly in front of temples (e.g., Virupaksha Bazaar).
Long, pillared corridors housing:
Jewellers
Spice traders
Cloth dealers
Horse merchants (imported horses from Arabia/Ormuz)
Export of spices, textiles, precious stones.
Import of horses, metals, luxury goods.
Gold, silver, and copper coins minted with royal insignia.
Artisans, merchants, farmers, temple staff, soldiers.
Multiple languages and ethnic groups (Kannada, Telugu, Tamil speakers).
City hosted foreign communities (Persians, Portuguese).
Spiritual centres + employers + landowners.
Maintained by donations from kings, elites, and local guilds.
Large-scale rituals during Mahanavami, chariot festivals.
Provincial governance through Nayakas, similar to feudal lords.
Provided:
Military contingents
Revenue tribute
Local administration
Enjoyed considerable autonomy but owed allegiance to the Raya.
1565: Battle of Talikota against Deccan Sultanates (Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Golconda, Bidar).
Sudden collapse after defeat; city plundered, temples damaged.
Royal family moved to Penukonda.
Hampi abandoned by late 16th century.