Tripartite Struggle ; Chahamanas (Chauhans) and the Cholas

Class 7 History – Our Pasts II (Rationalised 2023–24)
Chapter 2: Kings and Kingdoms (7th–12th Century CE)
UPSC-Oriented Summary Notes

1. Major Ruling Dynasties (7th–12th Century CE)

2. Emergence of New Dynasties

• By the 7th century, several landlords and warrior chiefs (samantas) emerged across regions.

• Kings acknowledged them as subordinates who brought gifts, attended court, and provided military support.

• Over time, samantas became powerful and declared independence, assuming titles such as maha-samanta or maha-mandaleshvara.

Examples:

• Rashtrakutas: Formerly samantas under the Chalukyas of Karnataka.

  • Dantidurga (mid-8th century) overthrew the Chalukyas and performed the Hiranya-garbha ritual (golden womb), symbolising rebirth as a Kshatriya.

• Kadamba Mayurasharman (Karnataka) and Gurjara-Pratihara Harichandra (Rajasthan) – Brahmanas who became rulers through military success.

3. Administration and Sources of Revenue

• Kings adopted grand titles such as maharaja-adhiraja (great king) and tribhuvana-chakravartin (lord of the three worlds).

• Despite these claims, they shared power with samantas, Brahmanas, peasants, and traders.

Revenue Sources:

• Collected from peasants, cattle-keepers, artisans, and traders.

• Often claimed as rent, asserting the king’s ownership of land.

• Chola records mention over 400 taxes:

  • Vetti – forced labour (in kind)

  • Kadamai – land revenue

  • Other taxes: house-thatching, palm-tree climbing, inheritance, etc.

Revenue financed the army, temples, forts, and wars.

4. Land Grants and Prashastis

Prashastis:

• Eulogies written by Brahmanas to glorify kings.

• Example: The Gwalior inscription describes Nagabhata I (Pratihara king) defeating rulers of Andhra, Sind, Kalinga, Bengal, and Gujarat.

Land Grants:

• Recorded on copper plates, partly in Sanskrit and Tamil.

• Land often included trees, wells, rivers, tanks, granaries, and orchards.

• Granted to Brahmanas and temples, allowing recipients to collect taxes and manage resources.

5. Tripartite Struggle for Kanauj

This prolonged conflict is known as the Tripartite Struggle.

6. Warfare and Temple Raids

• Temples symbolised royal authority and economic power.

• Mahmud of Ghazni (Afghanistan) invaded India 17 times between 1000 and 1025 CE, targeting wealthy temples such as Somnath (Gujarat).

• Wealth from raids was used to build his capital at Ghazni.

Chahamanas (Chauhans):

• Controlled Delhi–Ajmer region.

• Prithviraja III (1168–1192 CE) defeated Muhammad Ghori in 1191 but lost in 1192 (Second Battle of Tarain).

7. The Cholas: Rise and Expansion

• Vijayalaya (9th century) captured the Kaveri delta from the Muttaraiyars (subordinates of Pallavas).

• Founded Thanjavur and built a temple for Goddess Nishumbhasudini.

• Rajaraja I (985–1014 CE) expanded the empire and reorganised administration.

• Rajendra I (1014–1044 CE) conquered the Ganga Valley, Sri Lanka, and parts of Southeast Asia; developed a naval force and built Gangaikondacholapuram.

8. Chola Temples and Bronze Art

• Major Temples: Brihadishvara Temple (Thanjavur) and Gangaikondacholapuram Temple.

• Served as centres of religious, economic, and cultural life.

• Supported numerous specialists – priests, artisans, dancers, cooks, and musicians.

• Chola bronzes (e.g., Nataraja) are notable for their fine craftsmanship and detail.

9. Agriculture and Irrigation in the Tamil Region

• River Kaveri delta facilitated fertile agriculture.

• Development from 5th–6th centuries onward:

  • Forests cleared, land levelled, embankments and canals built.

  • Multiple crops cultivated annually.

• Irrigation works included:

  • Wells, tanks, sluice gates, and canals.

  • Managed collectively by rulers, officials, and villagers.

10. Chola Administration

Sabha Features (Uttaramerur Inscriptions):

• Committees managed irrigation, gardens, and temples.

• Members selected through Kudavolai system (lottery method).

• Eligibility:

  • Landowner, age 35–70, knowledge of Vedas, administrative experience, honesty.

  • No prior office held in last three years.

  • Must submit previous accounts before re-election.

11. Types of Land in Chola Records

12. Sources of Information

• Epigraphic Sources: Inscriptions and copper plate grants (e.g., Uttaramerur).

• Literary Sources:

  • Kalhana’s Rajatarangini (12th century) – historical account of Kashmir, critical of rulers.

  • Periyapuranam (12th century, Tamil) – describes lives of common people such as Pulaiyas (agricultural labourers).

13. Social and Economic Aspects

• Temples functioned as centres of production and redistribution.

• Local assemblies managed village affairs.

• Caste-based occupations were evident (Brahmanas, Vellalas, Pulaiyas).

• Village economy was largely self-sufficient but connected through trade and temple networks.

14. Key Terms