Ancient History : Short Notes [ Based on PYQs of BPSC/UPPSC & MPPSC ]

• Vedas & Literature

  • Vedas:
    • Yajurveda: One of the four Vedas; primarily deals with Vedic sacrifices and rituals.
    • Rigvedic Mandalas:
      • 3rd – Gayatri Mantra
      • 7th – Battle of Ten Kings
      • 9th – Soma
      • 10th – Purushasukta
    • Vedanga (six parts): Shiksha (phonetics), Kalpa (rituals), Vyakarana (grammar), Nirukta (etymology), Chhanda (meter/verse), Jyotisha (astrology)
  • Literary Works:
    • Swapnavasavadatta – Bhasa
    • Laghujatak – Varahamihira
    • Bodhisattvacaryavatara – Shantideva
    • Charyapada – First Bengali literary work, written in Abahatta, Pala period
    • Abhijnanashakuntalam – Kalidasa, translated to English by Sir William Jones
    • Kumarasambhavam – Kalidasa, story of birth of Shiva-Parvati’s son
  • Jain Philosophy:
    • Belief: World created and maintained by Universal Law
    • Samadhi Maran – Concept in Jain philosophy
    • Rishabhanatha – Ashtapad; Vasjupujya – Champapur; Neminath – Girnar; Mahavira – Pavapuri
    • Sthanakvasi – Sect of Jainism
    • Jina – Means “conqueror”

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  Buddhism

  • Centers & Monuments:
    • Dhanyakataka (Amaravati, Andhra Pradesh): Buddhist center, Amaravati Stupa, Mahasanghikas, 2nd century BCE
    • Ajanta Caves – Gorge of Waghora River; Cave No. 26 – Mahaparinirvana of Buddha
    • Pandu Lena Caves (Maharashtra) – Near Godavari
    • Amaravati Caves – Near Krishna River
  • Key Concepts:
    • Bodhisattva – Associated with Mahayana Buddhism
    • Bodhisattva Padmapani – Holds lotus, Ajanta paintings
    • Upasaka – Lay follower of Buddhism
    • Maitreya – Future Buddha
    • Stupas – Originated as pre-Buddhist tumuli
    • Vitarka Mudra – Teaching, discussion, intellectual debate
    • Dhyan Mudra – Samadhi/Yoga
    • Bhumisparsha Mudra – Buddha calling the Earth to witness truth
    • 4th Buddhist Council – Division between Hinayana and Mahayana
    • Milindapanho (100 BCE – 200 AD) – Dialogue between Nagasena and Menander
  • Monks & Scholars:
    • Aryadeva – Buddhist monk
    • Dignaga – Buddhist scholar

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  Land & Economy

  • Land Measures:
    • Kulyavapa – Area to sow one kulya of grain (12–16 acres)
    • Dronavapa – Area to sow one Drona of grain (1½–2 acres)
    • Types of Land (from inscriptions):
      • Kshetra – Cultivated land
      • Khila – Uncultivable land
      • Aprahata – Jungle/forest land
      • Gopata Sarah – Pasture land
      • Vasti – Habitable land
    • Hundi – Bill of exchange developed in post-Harsha period
  • Agriculture & Economy:
    • Rigvedic period – Agrarian + pastoral economy
    • Later Vedic period – Expanded agrarian economy
    • Indus Valley Civilization – Crops: Wheat, barley, sesame, mustard, cotton, rice, millet, tropical beans; Animals: Sheep, goat, buffalo

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  Art & Culture

  • Mudras: Vitarka, Dhyan, Bhumisparsha
  • Ajanta Paintings: Depict Jataka stories
  • Bodhisattva Padmapani – Ajanta paintings
  • Stupas – Burial mounds, pre-Buddhist origin

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  Historical Inscriptions & Pillars

  • Heliodorus Pillar (Besnagar, Madhya Pradesh, 110 BCE): Erected by Heliodorus, ambassador of Indo-Greek Antialcidas, in honor of Vasudeva (Krishna), Brahmi script, center of Bhagavata/Pancharatra Vaishnavism
  • Junagadh Rock Inscription: Chandragupta Maurya mentioned
  • Rummindei Pillar: Ashoka’s visit to Lumbini, tax exemption

Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) – Sites & Features

• Harappa (1921, Ravi River – Dayaram Sahani): Coffin burials, terracotta, zebu bull, copper bullock cart, granaries
• Mohenjodaro (1922, Indus River – R. D. Banerjee): Great Bath, bronze dancing girl, human skeletons, bronze buffalo, Pashupati seal
• Sutkagendor (1929, Baluchistan – Stein): Trade link with Babylon, BMAC
• Chanhudaro (1931 – N. G. Majumdar): Footprint of dog chasing cat
• Amri (1935 – N. G. Majumdar): Evidence of antelope and rhinoceros
• Kalibangan (1953, Ghaggar River – A. Ghosh): Earthquake evidence, camel bones, fire altars, ploughed field, copper ox, wooden drainage
• Lothal (1953 – S. R. Rao): Port town, dockyard, first man-made port, double burial, chess, ivory weight balance, copper dog
• Surkotada (1964 – J. P. Joshi, Gujarat): Horse bones
• Banawali (1974 – R. S. Bisht, Haryana): Beads, barley, oval settlement, radial streets, largest grain evidence
• Dholavira (1985 – R. S. Bisht, Rann of Kutch): Advanced water management, three-part city, giant reservoirs, dams, embankments, stadium

Additional Sites:

• Rakhigarhi – Evidence of couple burial
• Shortughai (Afghanistan) – Canal traces
• Mehrgarh – Oldest Neolithic settlement

IVC Agriculture & Economy:

• Main crops: Wheat, barley
• Other crops: Sesame, mustard, cotton, rice, millet, tropical beans
• Animals domesticated: Sheep, goat, buffalo
• Metals: Copper, gold, silver, tin, lead
• Iron: Not used (Iron discovered around 1000 BCE)
• Seals: Made of steatite

Teracotta plough model: Found at Banawali, Haryana

Vedic Rivers – Ancient & Modern Names

• Vitasta – Jhelum
• Askini – Chenab
• Purushni – Ravi
• Shatudri – Sutlej
• Vipasha – Beas
• Sadanira – Gandak
• Drishdavati – Ghaghara
• Saraswati – Ghaggar

Dynasties – Northern & Central India

• Mauryas:
  • Chandragupta Maurya (Sandrocottus) – Famine in South Bihar; Bhadrabahu & disciples migrated to Sravanabelgola
  • Samudragupta – Greatest Gupta ruler; mentioned in Javanese Tantrikamandaka; Sri Lanka ambassador for Buddhist monastery at Bodh Gaya
  • Ramagupta – Only Gupta ruler to issue copper coins
• Guptas:
  • Land measures: Kulyavapa, Dronavapa, Angul, Nal, Patak, Dhanu, Danda, Nivartan
• Palas (750–1150 CE): Capital – Munger
• Pratiharas (730–1036 CE): Founder – Harishchandra; Raja Nagabhata I – Founder of Bhinmal branch
• Rashtrakutas (753–973 CE)
• Satavahanas: 1st capital – Paithan, 2nd – Amravati; earliest land grant inscriptions
• Sunga: Pushyamitra Sunga – Capital at Vidisha; Heliodorus pillar – Bhagabhadra ruler
• Harsha Period: Hundi developed; Amravati prominent

Indo-Greeks, Sakas & Kushans

• Menander (Milinda) – Famous Indo-Greek ruler, known for justice & popularity; converted to Buddhism by Nagasena
• Coins – Main source of information about Indo-Greek rulers
• Sakas & Kushans – Adopted Indian script, language, religion
• Greeks – Introduced Hellenistic art features in India

South Indian Polities

• Cheras: Palmyra flower; ports – Muziris, Tondi; Capital – Vanchi/Karur; symbol – Bow & Arrow
• Cholas: Fig (Athi) flower; port – Puhar; capital – Uraiyur; symbol – Tiger; Taniyurs – Large villages & revenue units
• Pandyas: Neem flower; port – Korkai; capital – Madurai; symbol – Two Fish
• Pallavas (275–897 CE):
  • Capital – Kanchipuram
  • Rulers: Sivaskanda Varman (Ashwamedha), Simhavarman/Simhavishnu (Buddhist, included Sri Lanka), Mahendravarman (Jain), Narsimharaman (Chalukya occupied), Nriptaunga (defeated Pandya), Aprajitavarman (killed by Cholas)
• Chalukyas: Capital – Badami
• Pandyas: Capital – Madurai

Rajput Dynasties & Medieval Rulers

• Tomars (8th century – 1200 CE): Ruled Delhi–Haryana; notable ruler – Anangapala I
• Chauhans (Chahamanas, 600–1200 CE): Ruled Ajmer & Delhi; founder – Vasudeva Chauhan; defeated Tomars; Delhi became commercial center
• Chandellas (9th–13th century CE): Founded by Nannuka; ruled Jejakabhukti (Bundelkhand); built Kandariya Mahadev Temple (1050 CE, Khajuraho); capital later shifted to Mahoba; last ruler – Paramardi (defeated by Qutbuddin Aibak, 1203 CE)
• Rathores of Kannauj (1090–1194 CE): Prominent ruler – Jaichand
• Guhillas (Sisodiyas) of Mewar (8th century CE): Founder – Bappa Rawal; capital – Chittor
• Mewar rulers:
  • Rawal Ratan Singh – Invaded by Alauddin Khalji (1303 CE)
  • Maharana Pratap – 54th ruler

Delhi Sultanate & Muslim Rulers

• Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni (1000–1027 AD): Invaded India 17 times; attacked Somnath temple in 1024 CE (looted & destroyed)
• Raziyya Sultan (1236 CE): Daughter of Iltutmish; praised by Minhaj-i-Siraj as capable than brothers
• Sikandar Lodi: Abolished Zakat
• Zain-ul-Abdin (Kashmir): Abolished Jizya and cow slaughter

Bhamani & Marathas

• Bhamani Kingdom: Divided into Tarafs (provinces)
• Maratha Taxes:
  • Chauth: 25% annual tax from subordinate kingdoms
  • Sardeshmukhi: 1/10th land revenue over villages (Shivaji’s claim)

Vijayanagara Empire

• Tuluva Dynasty (1505–29):
  • Vira Narasimha (1505–09)
  • Krishnadeva Raya (1509–29) – Duarte Barbosa & Domingo Paes visited
• Achyuta Deva Raya (1529–42): Brother of Krishnadeva Raya; visited by Portuguese Fernao Nuniz; women skilled in wrestling, astrology, accounting, soothsaying
• Kalyan Mandapas: Architectural feature
• Motupalli Port: Important Kakatiya port
• Hundi: Bill of exchange developed post-Harsha

Mughal & Post-Mughal Battles

• Battle of Bilgram (1540): Sher Shah Suri defeated Humayun
• Battle of Sarnal (1572): Mughals vs Muhammad Husain Mirza
• Battle of Dharmat (1658): Aurangzeb defeated Dara Shikoh
• Battle of Jajau (1707): Mughal succession after Aurangzeb’s death
• Battle of Khatoli (1517): Rana Sanga vs Ibrahim Lodi
• Battle of Khanwa (1527): Rana Sanga vs Babur
• Battle of Chandwar (1194): Jaichand vs Muhammad Ghori (Jaichand killed)

Other Medieval Polities & Administration

• Amara Nayaka System: Political innovation of Vijayanagara Empire
• Village Autonomy: Feature of Chola administration
• Iqta System: Revenue collection; Muqti maintained troops; info from Siyasatnama
• Policy of Paramountcy: Introduced by Lord Hastings

Socio-Religious & Cultural Aspects

• 12 Alvars & 63 Nayanars:
  • Nayanars opposed Brahminical domination, Jainism & Buddhism
  • Alvars opposed Buddhism & Jain philosophy
• Nathpanthis: Medieval yogis practicing Hatha yoga, focused on formless salvation
• Literature:
  • Abhijnanashakuntalam – First translated into English by Sir William Jones
  • Kumarasambhavam by Kalidasa – Birth of Shiva-Parvati’s son; references Sati system
• Patronage to Tansen: Before Akbar by Raja Ramchandra Singh of Bhata
• Tri-metal coinage: Introduced by Sher Shah Suri

European & Port Activities

• Afonso de Albuquerque (1510 AD): Captured Goa from Ismail Adil Shah (Bijapur) with help of Krishnadeva Raya
• English East India Company (1639): Established factory at Madras; land leased from Nayakas of Vijayanagara Empire
• Duarte Barbosa: Portuguese traveler & writer
• Fernao Nuniz: Portuguese horse trader, visited Vijayanagara

Vedic Literature & Religion

• Yajurveda: Deals primarily with Vedic sacrifices and rituals
• Rigvedic Mandalas:
  • 3rd – Gayatri Mantra
  • 7th – Battle of Ten Kings
  • 9th – Soma
  • 10th – Purushasukta
• Vedanga: Six parts – Shiksha (phonetics), Kalpa (rituals), Vyakarana (grammar), Nirukta (etymology), Chhanda (meter/verse), Jyotisha (astrology)
• Sixteen Sanskaras: Prescribed in Hindu tradition

Jain Philosophy

• World created & maintained by Universal Law
• Tirthankaras:
  • Rishabhanath – Ashtpad
  • Vasjupujya – Champapur
  • Neminath – Girnar
  • Mahavira – Pavapuri
• Sthanakvasi: Sect of Jainism
• Samadhi Maran: Concept in Jain philosophy
• Bhadrabahu & disciples: Migrated to Sravanabelgola, Karnataka during famine in Chandragupta Maurya’s rule

Buddhism

• Bodhisattva Concept: Associated with Mahayana Buddhism
• Maitreya: Future Buddha
• Dhanyakataka (Amaravati): Buddhist center in Andhra Pradesh; Mahasanghikas; famous Amaravati Stupa; hub of Buddhist teachings from 2nd century BCE
• Stupas: Originated as pre-Buddhist tumuli; burial mounds for śramaṇas
• Bodhisattva Padmapani: Depicted holding lotus; seen in Ajanta paintings
• Vitarka Mudra: Signifies teaching, discussion, intellectual debate
• Dhyan Mudra: Represents Samadhi or Yoga
• Bhumisparsha Mudra: Buddha calling Earth to witness the truth
• 4th Buddhist Council: Led to division between Hinayana & Mahayana
• Milindapanho (100 BCE–200 AD): Dialogue between Nagasena & Indo-Greek king Menander

Brahmadeya & Land Systems

• Types of land (from inscriptions):
  • Kshetra – Cultivated
  • Khila – Uncultivable
  • Aprahata – Jungle/forest
  • Gopata Sarah – Pasture
  • Vasti – Habitable
• Kulyavapa: Area to sow 1 kulya of grain (~12–16 acres)
• Dronavapa: Area to sow 1 Drona of grain (~1½–2 acres)
• Brahmadeya villages: Donated to Brahmin(s)
• Hundi: Bill of exchange developed post-Harsha

Literary Works

• Swapnavasavadatta: By Bhasa
• Laghujatak: By Varahamihira
• Bodhisattvacaryavatara: By Shantideva (Mahayana rites of worship)
• Tulsidas (16th century): Ramcharitmanas in Awadhi; Geetika wrongly attributed
• Charyapada: First Bengali literary work in Abahatta; Pala period
• Yogavasistha: Translated into Persian by Nizamuddin Panipati during Akbar

Caves & Architecture

• Ajanta Caves: Gorge of Waghora River; Cave No. 26 – Mahaparinirvana of Buddha; Ajanta paintings depict Jataka stories
• Pandu Lena Caves: Maharashtra, near Godavari River
• Amaravati Caves: Near Krishna River
• Kalyan Mandapas: Vijayanagara architectural feature

Other Important Figures

• Al-Biruni: Identified barriers – language, religion, insularity of locals; noted Mahmud of Ghazni’s attack on Somnath
• Ibn Battuta: Visited India during Muhammad Bin Tughlaq (1325–1351); travelogue – Rihla
• Duarte Barbosa: Portuguese traveler & writer
• Heliodorus Pillar (Besnagar/Vidisha, MP): Erected ~110 BCE by Heliodorus, ambassador of Indo-Greek king Antialcidas; honors Vasudeva (Krishna); Garudadhwaja; Brahmi script; center of Bhagavata/Pancharatra Vaishnavism; Buddhist, Jaina, Hindu remains
• Aryadeva: Buddhist monk
• Dignaga: Buddhist scholar

Vedic Rivers – Ancient & Modern

• Vitasta – Jhelum
• Askini – Chenab
• Purushni – Ravi
• Shatudri – Sutlej
• Vipasha – Beas
• Sadanira – Gandak
• Drishdavati – Ghaghara
• Saraswati – Ghaggar

• Yajurveda is one of the four Vedas and primarily deals with Vedic sacrifices and rituals.
• Literary works: Swapnavasavadatta was written by Bhasa, and Laghujatak was written by Varahamihira.
• Bodhisattvacaryavatara, describing Mahayana rites of worship, was composed by Shantideva.
  
  
  

Jain philosophy holds that the world is created and maintained by Universal Law.

• Hundi is a bill of exchange that developed in the post-Harsha period.
• Types of land (from inscriptions): Kshetra – cultivated land; Khila – uncultivable land; Aprahata – jungle/forest land; Gopata Sarah – pasture land; Vasti – habitable land.
• Kulyavapa refers to the area required to sow one kulya of grain (approximately 12–16 acres), while Dronavapa refers to the area required to sow one Drona of grain (approximately 1½–2 acres).

Rigvedic Mandalas: Seventh – Battle of Ten Kings; Ninth – Soma; Third – Gayatri Mantra; Tenth – Purushasukta.

• Dhanyakataka (Amaravati) was a prominent Buddhist center located in present-day Andhra Pradesh, flourished under the Mahasanghikas, had the famous Amaravati Stupa, and served as a hub of Buddhist teachings from around the 2nd century BCE.
• The concept of Stupas is not exclusively Buddhist, as stupas existed in pre-Buddhist times as burial mounds or tumuli where śramaṇas were buried in a seated position.

Bodhisattva Padmapani is associated with Mahayana Buddhism, depicted holding a lotus, and is seen in the Ajanta paintings.

• Banjaras were traders.
• Bodhisattva concept is associated with Mahayana Buddhism.

Brahmadeya villages were those donated to a single Brahmin or a group of Brahmins.Cave locations:Ajanta caves in the gorge of the Waghora River; Pandu Lena caves (Maharashtra) near the Godavari River; Amaravati caves near the Krishna River.

• Upasaka refers to a lay follower of Buddhism.
• Kulyavapa and Dronavapa were measurements of land.
• Sthanakvasi is a sect of Jainism.
• Maitreya is regarded as the future Buddha who will save the world.

Stupas originated as pre-Buddhist tumuli.

• Besnagar (Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh): The Heliodorus Pillar was erected around 110 BCE by Heliodorus, ambassador of Indo-Greek ruler Antialcidas, in honor of Vasudeva (Krishna); also known as Garudadhwaja, written in Brahmi script, and indicates a center of Bhagavata/Pancharatra Vaishnavism, with remains of Buddhist, Jaina, and Hindu temples.
• Aryadeva was a Buddhist monk.
• Dignaga was a Buddhist scholar.
• Panchala is associated with the creation of the Upanishads.
• Chandragupta Maurya is mentioned in the Junagadh Rock Inscription of Rudradaman.

Samudragupta was perhaps the greatest Gupta ruler; his name appears in the Javanese text Tantrikamandaka, and Chinese writer Wang-Hiuen-Tse records that King Meghavarma of Sri Lanka sent an ambassador to his court seeking permission to build a Buddhist monastery at Bodh Gaya for Sri Lankan monks.The first Bengali literary work Charyapada belongs to this period and was written in Abahatta, during the Pala period.

• Vitarka Mudra signifies teaching, discussion, and intellectual debate.
• Dhyan Mudra represents Samadhi or Yoga.
• Sixteen Sanskaras are prescribed in Hindu tradition.
• Vedanga has six parts: Shiksha (phonetics), Kalpa (rituals), Vyakarana (grammar), Nirukta (etymology), Chhanda (meter/verse), and Jyotisha (astrology).
• Ajanta Cave No. 26 depicts the Mahaparinirvana of Buddha.
• Heliodorus was associated with Bhagabhadra, a ruler of the Shunga dynasty.

Socio-Religious History

• Peepal-shaped seal found in the Indus Valley Civilization.
• 4th Buddhist Council led to division between Hinayana and Mahayana.
• Samadhi Maran is a concept in Jain philosophy.
• Rigveda mentions only two Tirthankaras: Rishabhanatha and Arishtanemi.

Dynasties

• Pala Dynasty capital was Munger.
• Mahapadma Nanda merged Chedi Janapada into Magadha.

Art & Culture

• Ajanta Paintings depict Jataka stories.

Indus Valley Civilization – Sites & Features 

Additional Sites

Vedic Rivers – Ancient & Modern Names

• Bhumisparsha Mudra symbolizes the Buddha calling the Earth to witness the truth.
• Vitasta is the Vedic name of Jhelum, Askini of Chenab, Purushni of Ravi, Shatudri of Satluj, Vipasha of Beas, Sadanira of Gandak, Drishdavati of Ghaghra, and Saraswati of Ghaggar.

• The Palas ruled from 750–1150 CE, Pratiharas from 730–1036 CE, and Rashtrakutas from 753–973 CE.
• Milindapanho (100 BC–200 AD) is a Buddhist text recording a dialogue between Nagasena and Indo-Greek king Menander (2nd century BC).

• Tamralipti was an ancient port city of Bengal, capital of the Suhma Kingdom, located on the Bay of Bengal.
• Muvendar (Tamil Polities):

– Cheras: Palmyra flower, ports Muziris–Tondi, capital Vanchi/Karur, symbol Bow & Arrow.

– Cholas: Fig (Athi) flower, port Puhar, capital Uraiyur, symbol Tiger.

– Pandyas: Neem flower, port Korkai, capital Madurai, symbol Two Fish.

Indus Valley Civilization (IVC)

• Main crops of IVC: Wheat and barley.
• Other crops of IVC: Sesame, mustard, cotton, rice, millet, tropical beans.
• Animals domesticated in IVC: Sheep, goat, buffalo.• Metals used in Harappan period: Copper, gold, silver, tin, lead.
• Iron was not used in the Harappan Civilization (iron discovered around 1000 BC).
• Harappan seals were made of steatite.

Indo-Greeks, Sakas & Kushans

• Menander (Milinda) was the most famous Indo-Greek ruler, known for justice and popularity.
• Menander was converted to Buddhism by Nagasena.
• Coins are the main source of information about Indo-Greek rulers.
• Sakas and Kushans adopted Indian script, language, and religion.
• Greeks introduced Hellenistic art features into India.
• Vidisha made capital by Pushyamitra Sunga.

• Earliest land grant inscriptions issued by Satvahanas.

• Rummindei Pillar records Ashoka’s visit to Lumbini and its tax exemption.

• Ramagupta was the only Gupta ruler to issue copper coins.

• Harishchandra founded the Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty; Nagabhata-I regarded as real founder.

• Chandragupta Maurya known as Sandrocottus.

• Menander (Milinda): Famous Indo-Greek ruler, noted for justice & popularity.
• Bhadrabahu and disciples migrated to Sravanabelgola, Karnataka due to famine in South Bihar during Chandragupta Maurya’s rule.

Neolithic & Chalcolithic Sites

• Mehrgarh: Earliest Neolithic settlement, near Bolan River
• Shortughai: Evidence of canal traces for irrigation

Maurya Dynasty

• Chandragupta Maurya: Known as Sandrocottus; famine in South Bihar; Bhadrabahu & disciples migrated to Sravanabelgola
• Samudragupta: Greatest Gupta ruler; mentioned in Tantrikamandaka; Sri Lanka sent ambassador for Buddhist monastery at Bodh Gaya
• Chandragupta Maurya: Mentioned in Junagadh Rock Inscription of Rudradaman

• Satavahana Capitals: 1st Paithan (1st BC), 2nd Amravati.

• Mehergarh: Near Bolan River, earliest Neolithic settlement.

• Jina means conqueror in Jainism.• Chandragupta Maurya: Famine in South Bihar; Bhadrabahu and disciples migrated to Sravanabelgola, Karnataka.

• Satvahanas: 1st capital Paithan, 2nd Amravati; earliest land grant inscriptions.

• Pushyamitra Sunga: Capital at Vidisha.

• Raja Nagabhata I: Founder of Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty.

• Rishabhanath – Ashtpad; Vasjupujya – Champapur; Neminath – Girnar; Mahavira – Pavapuri.
• Indus Valley Civilization: Urban settlements.

• Rigvedic period: Agrarian + pastoral economy.

• Later Vedic: Agrarian economy expanded
• Mehergarh: Early settlement on Bolan River.

• Teracotta plough model: Found at Banawali, Haryana.

• Vinay Pitaka: Discipline, Sutt Pitaka: Dialogues & Logic, Abhidhamma Pitaka: Teachings & Religious Interpretation.

• Pallavas (275–897 CE): Capital Kanchipuram; rulers: Sivaskanda Varman (ashwamedha), Simhavarman/Simhavishnu (Buddhist, included Sri Lanka), Mahendravarman (Jain), Narsimharaman (Chalukya occupied Kanchipuram), Nriptaunga (defeated Pandya), last ruler Aprajitavarman (killed by Cholas).

• Chalukyas: Badami.

• Pandyas: Madurai.

• Pallavas: Kanchipuram.

Vijayanagara Empire

• Dynasties:
  • Tuluva Dynasty (1505–29): Vira Narasimha (1505–09), Krishnadeva Raya (1509–29)
  • Achyuta Deva Raya (1529–42): Brother of Krishnadeva Raya
• Architecture: Kalyan Mandapas
• Ports: Motupalli port
• Amara Nayaka system: Political/military innovation
• Portuguese visitors: Duarte Barbosa, Domingo Paes, Fernao Nuniz (noted women’s skills in wrestling, astrology, accounting, soothsaying)
• Capture of Goa (1510): Afonso de Albuquerque defeated Ismail Adil Shah with help of Krishnadeva Raya

Kakatiyas (12th CE)

• Rulers: Rudradeva I, Warangal (1083–1323)
• Temples: Rudramdevi & Ganapati Deva
• Famous structures: Thousand Pillar Temple (Rudreswara), Ramappa Temple, Golkonda Fort

Post-Harsha Economy

• Hundi: Bill of exchange
• Land types: Kshetra (cultivated), Khila (uncultivable), Aprahata (jungle), Gopata Sarah (pasture), Vasti (habitable)
• Land measures: Kulyavapa (area to sow 1 kulya of grain ~12–16 acres), Dronavapa (area to sow 1 Drona of grain ~1½–2 acres)
• Village autonomy: Feature under Cholas
• Taniyurs: Large villages/revenue units under Cholas

Medieval Dynasties

• Gahadavala Dynasty: Ruled Gangetic plains; capital Kanyakubja (Kannauj)
• Chahamanas (Chauhans): Ruled Ajmer & Delhi, 600–1200 CE; founder Vasudeva Chauhan
• Chandellas: 9th–13th CE; founded by Nannuka; capital Mahoba; built Kandariya Mahadev Temple, Khajuraho (1050 CE)
• Rathores of Kannauj: 1090–1194 CE; notable ruler Jaichand
• Guhillas (Sisodiyas): Mewar; founder Bappa Rawal; capital Chittor; Maharana Pratap – 54th ruler
• Bhamani Kingdom: Divided into Tarafs (Provinces)

Sultanates & Mughal Events

• Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni: Invaded India 17 times (1000–1027 AD); Somnath temple attacked 1024 CE
• Zain-ul-Abdin (Kashmir): Abolished Jizya and cow slaughter
• Raja Nagabhata I: Founder of Bhinmal branch of Pratiharas
• Delhi Capitals:
  • First under Tomar Rajputs → defeated by Chauhans
  • Raziyya Sultan (1236): Daughter of Iltutmish, more capable than brothers
• Sikandar Lodi: Abolished Zakat
• Policy of Paramountcy: Introduced by Lord Hastings
• Rulers of Rajasthan & nearby regions: Rana Hamir – Mewar; Rana Chunda – Marwar; Malika Raja Farooqui – Khandesh; Malika Sarwar Khawaja Jahan – Jaunpur

Maratha Administration

• Chauth: 25% annual tax from subordinate kingdoms
• Sardeshmukhi: 1/10th land revenue over villages; claim by Shivaji over deshmukhs

Medieval Literature & Religion

• 12 Alvars & 63 Nayanars:
  • Nayanars opposed Brahminical domination, Jainism & Buddhism
  • Alvars opposed Buddhism & Jain philosophy
• Nathpanthis: Medieval yogis practicing Hatha yoga, focused on formless salvation
• Literature:
  • Abhijnanashakuntalam (Kalidasa, translated by Sir William Jones)
  • Kumarasambhavam (Kalidasa)
• Patronage to Tansen: Raja Ramchandra Singh of Bhata before Akbar
• Yogavasistha: Translated into Persian by Nizamuddin Panipati during Akbar’s reign

Battles

• Battle of Bilgram (1540): Sher Shah Suri defeated Humayun
• Battle of Sarnal (1572): Mughals vs Muhammad Husain Mirza
• Battle of Dharmat (1658): Aurangzeb defeated Dara Shikoh
• Battle of Jajau (1707): Mughal succession post-Aurangzeb
• Battle of Chandwar (1194): Jaichand vs Muhammad Ghori (Jaichand killed)
• Battle of Khatoli (1517): Rana Sanga vs Ibrahim Lodi
• Battle of Khanwa (1527): Rana Sanga vs Babur

Coins & Economy

• Tri-metal coinage system: Introduced by Sher Shah Suri
• Iqta system: Revenue collection; Muqti maintained troops; info from Siyasatnama

Hindu-German Conspiracy / Zimmerman Plan (1914–17)

• Leaders: Har Dayal, Maulana Barkatullah, Virendranath Chattopadhyay, Raja Mahendra Pratap, Bhai Parmanand
• Berlin Committee established: 1915

Vedic Literature & Philosophy

• Yajurveda: One of the four Vedas; primarily deals with Vedic sacrifices and rituals
• Rigvedic Mandalas:
  • Seventh – Battle of Ten Kings
  • Ninth – Soma
  • Third – Gayatri Mantra
  • Tenth – Purushasukta
• Vedanga: Six parts – Shiksha (phonetics), Kalpa (rituals), Vyakarana (grammar), Nirukta (etymology), Chhanda (meter/verse), Jyotisha (astrology)
• Sixteen Sanskaras: Prescribed in Hindu tradition

Jain Philosophy

• Worldview: Universe created and maintained by Universal Law
• Samadhi Maran: Concept in Jain philosophy
• Tirthankaras:
  • Rishabhanath – Ashtpad
  • Vasjupujya – Champapur
  • Neminath – Girnar
  • Mahavira – Pavapuri
• Sthanakvasi: Sect of Jainism
• Jina: Means conqueror in Jainism

Buddhist Philosophy & Texts

• Bodhisattvacaryavatara: Composed by Shantideva; describes Mahayana rites of worship
• Maitreya: Future Buddha who will save the world
• Bodhisattva concept: Associated with Mahayana Buddhism
• Bodhisattva Padmapani: Depicted holding a lotus; seen in Ajanta paintings
• Upasaka: Lay follower of Buddhism
• Samadhi / Dhyan Mudra: Represent meditation/Yoga
• Vitarka Mudra: Signifies teaching, discussion, and intellectual debate
• Bhumisparsha Mudra: Buddha calling Earth to witness the truth
• 4th Buddhist Council: Led to division between Hinayana and Mahayana
• Milindapanho (100 BC–200 AD): Dialogue between Nagasena and Indo-Greek king Menander

Literature

• Bhasa: Swapnavasavadatta
• Varahamihira: Laghujatak
• Kalidasa: Abhijnanashakuntalam, Kumarasambhavam
• Tulsidas: Ramcharitmanas (Awadhi)
• Charyapada: First Bengali literary work, Abahatta language, Pala period

Socio-Religious & Cultural Features

• Peepal-shaped seal: Found in Indus Valley Civilization
• Brahmadeya villages: Donated to single or group of Brahmins
• Banjaras: Traders
• Stupas: Originated as pre-Buddhist tumuli; used in Buddhist worship
• Caves:
  • Ajanta caves (Waghora River)
  • Pandu Lena (Godavari River, Maharashtra)
  • Amaravati caves (Krishna River)
• Dhanyakataka (Amaravati): Buddhist center; Amaravati Stupa; Mahasanghikas
• Heliodorus Pillar (Besnagar, Vidisha, 110 BCE): Erected by Heliodorus in honor of Vasudeva (Krishna), Brahmi script; center of Bhagavata/Pancharatra Vaishnavism

Rigvedic & Later Vedic Economy

• Rigvedic Period: Agrarian + pastoral economy
• Later Vedic Period: Expansion of agrarian economy
• Types of crops (Indus Valley Civilization): Wheat, barley, sesame, mustard, cotton, rice, millet, tropical beans
• Animals domesticated (IVC): Sheep, goat, buffalo
• Metals in Harappan period: Copper, gold, silver, tin, lead
• Iron: Not used in Harappan Civilization; discovered ~1000 BC
• Terracotta plough: Found at Banawali, Haryana

• Yajurveda is one of the four Vedas and primarily deals with Vedic sacrifices and rituals.
• Literary works: Swapnavasavadatta was written by Bhasa, and Laghujatak was written by Varahamihira.
• Bodhisattvacaryavatara, describing Mahayana rites of worship, was composed by Shantideva.
  
  
  

Jain philosophy holds that the world is created and maintained by Universal Law.

• Hundi is a bill of exchange that developed in the post-Harsha period.
• Types of land (from inscriptions): Kshetra – cultivated land; Khila – uncultivable land; Aprahata – jungle/forest land; Gopata Sarah – pasture land; Vasti – habitable land.
• Kulyavapa refers to the area required to sow one kulya of grain (approximately 12–16 acres), while Dronavapa refers to the area required to sow one Drona of grain (approximately 1½–2 acres).

Rigvedic Mandalas: Seventh – Battle of Ten Kings; Ninth – Soma; Third – Gayatri Mantra; Tenth – Purushasukta.

• Dhanyakataka (Amaravati) was a prominent Buddhist center located in present-day Andhra Pradesh, flourished under the Mahasanghikas, had the famous Amaravati Stupa, and served as a hub of Buddhist teachings from around the 2nd century BCE.
• The concept of Stupas is not exclusively Buddhist, as stupas existed in pre-Buddhist times as burial mounds or tumuli where śramaṇas were buried in a seated position.

Bodhisattva Padmapani is associated with Mahayana Buddhism, depicted holding a lotus, and is seen in the Ajanta paintings.

• Banjaras were traders.
• Bodhisattva concept is associated with Mahayana Buddhism.

Brahmadeya villages were those donated to a single Brahmin or a group of Brahmins.Cave locations:Ajanta caves in the gorge of the Waghora River; Pandu Lena caves (Maharashtra) near the Godavari River; Amaravati caves near the Krishna River.

• Upasaka refers to a lay follower of Buddhism.
• Kulyavapa and Dronavapa were measurements of land.
• Sthanakvasi is a sect of Jainism.
• Maitreya is regarded as the future Buddha who will save the world.

Stupas originated as pre-Buddhist tumuli.

• Besnagar (Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh): The Heliodorus Pillar was erected around 110 BCE by Heliodorus, ambassador of Indo-Greek ruler Antialcidas, in honor of Vasudeva (Krishna); also known as Garudadhwaja, written in Brahmi script, and indicates a center of Bhagavata/Pancharatra Vaishnavism, with remains of Buddhist, Jaina, and Hindu temples.
• Aryadeva was a Buddhist monk.
• Dignaga was a Buddhist scholar.
• Panchala is associated with the creation of the Upanishads.
• Chandragupta Maurya is mentioned in the Junagadh Rock Inscription of Rudradaman.

Samudragupta was perhaps the greatest Gupta ruler; his name appears in the Javanese text Tantrikamandaka, and Chinese writer Wang-Hiuen-Tse records that King Meghavarma of Sri Lanka sent an ambassador to his court seeking permission to build a Buddhist monastery at Bodh Gaya for Sri Lankan monks.The first Bengali literary work Charyapada belongs to this period and was written in Abahatta, during the Pala period.

• Vitarka Mudra signifies teaching, discussion, and intellectual debate.
• Dhyan Mudra represents Samadhi or Yoga.
• Sixteen Sanskaras are prescribed in Hindu tradition.
• Vedanga has six parts: Shiksha (phonetics), Kalpa (rituals), Vyakarana (grammar), Nirukta (etymology), Chhanda (meter/verse), and Jyotisha (astrology).
• Ajanta Cave No. 26 depicts the Mahaparinirvana of Buddha.
• Heliodorus was associated with Bhagabhadra, a ruler of the Shunga dynasty.

Socio-Religious History

• Peepal-shaped seal found in the Indus Valley Civilization.
• 4th Buddhist Council led to division between Hinayana and Mahayana.
• Samadhi Maran is a concept in Jain philosophy.
• Rigveda mentions only two Tirthankaras: Rishabhanatha and Arishtanemi.

Dynasties

• Pala Dynasty capital was Munger.
• Mahapadma Nanda merged Chedi Janapada into Magadha.

Art & Culture

• Ajanta Paintings depict Jataka stories.

Indus Valley Civilization – Sites & Features 

Additional Sites

Vedic Rivers – Ancient & Modern Names

• Bhumisparsha Mudra symbolizes the Buddha calling the Earth to witness the truth.
• Vitasta is the Vedic name of Jhelum, Askini of Chenab, Purushni of Ravi, Shatudri of Satluj, Vipasha of Beas, Sadanira of Gandak, Drishdavati of Ghaghra, and Saraswati of Ghaggar.

• The Palas ruled from 750–1150 CE, Pratiharas from 730–1036 CE, and Rashtrakutas from 753–973 CE.
• Milindapanho (100 BC–200 AD) is a Buddhist text recording a dialogue between Nagasena and Indo-Greek king Menander (2nd century BC).

• Tamralipti was an ancient port city of Bengal, capital of the Suhma Kingdom, located on the Bay of Bengal.

• Muvendar (Tamil Polities):

– Cheras: Palmyra flower, ports Muziris–Tondi, capital Vanchi/Karur, symbol Bow & Arrow.

– Cholas: Fig (Athi) flower, port Puhar, capital Uraiyur, symbol Tiger.

– Pandyas: Neem flower, port Korkai, capital Madurai, symbol Two Fish.

Indus Valley Civilization (IVC)

• Main crops of IVC: Wheat and barley.
• Other crops of IVC: Sesame, mustard, cotton, rice, millet, tropical beans.
• Animals domesticated in IVC: Sheep, goat, buffalo.• Metals used in Harappan period: Copper, gold, silver, tin, lead.
• Iron was not used in the Harappan Civilization (iron discovered around 1000 BC).
• Harappan seals were made of steatite.

Indo-Greeks, Sakas & Kushans

• Menander (Milinda) was the most famous Indo-Greek ruler, known for justice and popularity.
• Menander was converted to Buddhism by Nagasena.
• Coins are the main source of information about Indo-Greek rulers.
• Sakas and Kushans adopted Indian script, language, and religion.
• Greeks introduced Hellenistic art features into India.
• Vidisha made capital by Pushyamitra Sunga.

• Earliest land grant inscriptions issued by Satvahanas.

• Rummindei Pillar records Ashoka’s visit to Lumbini and its tax exemption.

• Ramagupta was the only Gupta ruler to issue copper coins.

• Harishchandra founded the Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty; Nagabhata-I regarded as real founder.

• Chandragupta Maurya known as Sandrocottus.

• Menander (Milinda): Famous Indo-Greek ruler, noted for justice & popularity.

• Bhadrabahu and disciples migrated to Sravanabelgola, Karnataka due to famine in South Bihar during Chandragupta Maurya’s rule.

• Satavahana Capitals: 1st Paithan (1st BC), 2nd Amravati.

• Mehergarh: Near Bolan River, earliest Neolithic settlement.

• Jina means conqueror in Jainism.
• Chandragupta Maurya: Famine in South Bihar; Bhadrabahu and disciples migrated to Sravanabelgola, Karnataka.

• Satvahanas: 1st capital Paithan, 2nd Amravati; earliest land grant inscriptions.

• Pushyamitra Sunga: Capital at Vidisha.

• Raja Nagabhata I: Founder of Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty.

• Rishabhanath – Ashtpad; Vasjupujya – Champapur; Neminath – Girnar; Mahavira – Pavapuri.
• Indus Valley Civilization: Urban settlements.

• Rigvedic period: Agrarian + pastoral economy.

• Later Vedic: Agrarian economy expanded
• Mehergarh: Early settlement on Bolan River.

• Teracotta plough model: Found at Banawali, Haryana.

• Vinay Pitaka: Discipline, Sutt Pitaka: Dialogues & Logic, Abhidhamma Pitaka: Teachings & Religious Interpretation.
• Pallavas (275–897 CE): Capital Kanchipuram; rulers: Sivaskanda Varman (ashwamedha), Simhavarman/Simhavishnu (Buddhist, included Sri Lanka), Mahendravarman (Jain), Narsimharaman (Chalukya occupied Kanchipuram), Nriptaunga (defeated Pandya), last ruler Aprajitavarman (killed by Cholas).

• Chalukyas: Badami.

• Pandyas: Madurai.

• Pallavas: Kanchipuram.