Before the Revolt of 1857, India had already witnessed numerous popular resistances against the rule of the East India Company. These struggles arose in different regions, were led by different sections of society, and reflected growing resentment against colonial exploitation, economic oppression, political interference, and the foreign character of British rule.Although these movements were mostly local in character, they collectively demonstrated that opposition to British authority had begun much earlier than 1857. These early resistances laid the foundation for the later nationwide struggle against colonial rule.
The term "People's Resistance" refers to the collective opposition offered by different sections of Indian society against British rule.The term "people" included:
Although each group had different grievances, all gradually converged towards one common objective:Ending British rule.
Several urban agitations also reflected this growing resentment.
| Year | Place | Cause |
|---|---|---|
| 1810 | Benares | House Tax imposed by British Government |
| 1814 | Surat | Salt Duty |
| 1816 | Bareilly | Police Tax and Municipal Taxes |
These movements brought together artisans, petty traders, urban poor and prosperous citizens.
According to Bipan Chandra, people's resistance assumed three major forms:
Apart from these, Military Revolts (Sepoy Mutinies) also formed an important part of resistance because Indian soldiers serving under the East India Company repeatedly revolted against discriminatory policies.Thus, people's resistance can broadly be divided into:
Even before British rule, people occasionally protested against Indian rulers because of:
However, such protests remained limited because rulers generally belonged to the same social and political system.
The establishment of colonial rule fundamentally changed the situation.The East India Company was primarily interested in:
There was little concern for the welfare of Indians.The colonial administration and judiciary largely protected:
As a result, ordinary people found no institutional means to redress their grievances. Consequently, many chose armed resistance.Among the tribal communities, resentment became even stronger because British interference directly threatened their independent political systems and traditional control over land and forests.
The British introduced new land revenue settlements that imposed:
These measures destroyed the traditional agrarian structure.
The British revenue system encouraged the rise of:
This increased exploitation of peasants and weakened their traditional rights over land.
Expansion of British revenue administration into tribal regions resulted in:
British commercial policies promoted:
This devastated:
Millions of artisans lost their livelihoods.
As indigenous industries collapsed:
Civil uprisings were generally led by:
The main support came from:
Although common people actively participated, leadership usually remained with the former ruling classes.
Rapid changes introduced by British administration affected:
These changes adversely affected traditional society.
Many zamindars and poligars lost:
Consequently, they developed deep hostility towards Company rule.
Traditional elites experienced humiliation because:
British policies ruined Indian handicrafts.As a result:
Priests, pundits, maulvis and religious teachers supported resistance because they had depended upon:
The decline of these traditional elites weakened the priestly class as well.
The British remained outsiders who:
This foreign character of British rule became an important factor behind repeated uprisings.
Most civil uprisings shared several common features.
Region: Eastern India
The Great Bengal Famine of 1770 and the harsh economic policies of the East India Company forced many sanyasis to take up arms.Originally, many sanyasis were peasants who had been dispossessed of their lands.They were joined by:
The rebels attacked:
They repeatedly fought Company forces over a prolonged period.The revolt was eventually suppressed by Warren Hastings.
The revolt inspired two important novels by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay:
Region: Midnapore and Jungle Mahals (Bengal)
The English acquired Midnapore in 1760.Initially, nearly 3,000 zamindars and talukdars maintained cordial relations with the ryots.This changed after the introduction of the new land revenue system in 1772.The British revenue administration increasingly dispossessed zamindars.
The revolt spread across:
By the early nineteenth century, many zamindars lost their estates under British rule.
Region: Assam
The Moamarias were low-caste peasants who followed the teachings of Aniruddhadeva (1553–1624).They challenged the authority of the Ahom rulers.
The rebellion significantly weakened the Ahom kingdom.Its weakening encouraged further revolts.
The King of Darrang, Krishnanarayan, revolted with the support of Burkandazes (demobilised Muslim soldiers).The Ahom ruler had to seek British military assistance.
The Moamarias established their headquarters at:
Although the Ahom kingdom survived initially, it became weak and later:
Region: Present Uttar Pradesh
To finance wars against:
Warren Hastings introduced an experiment by appointing Major Alexander Hannay as Izaradar (Revenue Farmer).Hannay secured the revenue contract of:
for ₹22 lakh.
Hannay imposed:
This ruined a previously prosperous region.
The:
jointly revolted.Company officials were:
by zamindari guerrilla forces.
Although the rebellion was suppressed:
Region: Northern Circars (Present Andhra Pradesh)
In 1758, the Raja of Vizianagaram entered into a treaty with the English to expel the French from the Northern Circars.After achieving success, the British failed to honour the agreement.The Company later demanded:
The Raja refused to comply because no tribute was legally due.He revolted with the support of his subjects.
The British captured the Raja in 1793 and ordered him into exile with a pension.He refused.In 1794, he fought the British at the Battle of Padmanabham (modern Visakhapatnam district).
| Year/Period | Event |
|---|---|
| 1763–1800 | Sanyasi Revolt |
| 1766–1774 | Revolt in Midnapore and Dhalbhum |
| 1769–1799 | Moamaria Revolt |
| 1770 | Great Bengal Famine strengthened Sanyasi resistance |
| 1772 | New land revenue system introduced in Midnapore |
| 1778 | Major Alexander Hannay appointed Izaradar in Gorakhpur |
| 1781 | Civil Uprisings in Gorakhpur, Basti and Bahraich |
| 1792 | Revolt of King Krishnanarayan of Darrang during Moamaria disturbances |
| 1793 | Raja of Vizianagaram captured and ordered into exile |
| 1794 | Battle of Padmanabham; Raja of Vizianagaram killed |
The period between 1795 and 1818 witnessed several important civil rebellions across different regions of India. Most of these revolts were led by native rulers, zamindars, poligars, military chiefs, and dispossessed feudal elites, while the main support came from peasants, artisans, tribal communities, and demobilised soldiers. The immediate causes differed from region to region, but they reflected growing resentment against British political interference, excessive revenue demands, annexation policies, and administrative changes.
Region: Bednur (Mysore), present Karnataka
Following the British conquest of Mysore in 1799, several local leaders opposed the new British administration.Dhundia Wagh, a Maratha chief, had earlier been:
After the fall of Seringapatam (1799), Dhundia was released.
Dhundia quickly organised a force consisting of various anti-British elements and established a small independent territory.After suffering defeat in August 1799, he escaped into the Maratha territory, where he encouraged disappointed princes and chiefs to unite against the British. He himself assumed leadership of the movement.
In September 1800, Dhundia Wagh was killed while fighting British forces under Wellesley.Although unsuccessful, he became a respected popular leader remembered for resisting British authority.
Region: Kottayam (Cotiote), Malabar (Kerala)
Kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja, popularly known as:
was the de facto ruler of Kottayam in Malabar.He had earlier resisted both:
before fighting the British.
After the Third Anglo-Mysore War (1790–92), British supremacy was extended over Kottayam, violating the earlier agreement of 1790, which had recognised its independence.The British appointed Vira Varma, the Raja's uncle, as ruler.To satisfy Company revenue demands, the new ruler imposed very high taxes on peasants.This provoked widespread peasant resistance under Pazhassi Raja.
Pazhassi Raja led the resistance through guerrilla warfare.His successful campaign compelled the British to conclude a peace treaty in 1797.
A dispute regarding Wayanad revived hostilities.Pazhassi Raja organised:
The Pathans included former soldiers of Tipu Sultan who had become unemployed after his death.
In November 1805, Pazhassi Raja was killed in a gun battle at Mavila Todu, near the present Kerala–Karnataka border.
Region: Awadh (Oudh)
Wazir Ali Khan, the fourth Nawab of Awadh, ascended the throne in 1797 with British support.Soon afterwards, relations between him and the British deteriorated.The British replaced him with his uncle, Saadat Ali Khan II.Wazir Ali was pensioned off and sent to Benares.
In January 1799, Wazir Ali:
This incident became famous as the Massacre of Benares.
Wazir Ali organised an army numbering several thousand men.The force was defeated by General Erskine.After taking refuge in Butwal and later Jaipur, Wazir Ali was extradited on the condition that:
After surrendering in December 1799, he remained imprisoned in Fort William, Calcutta.
Region: Northern Circars (Present Odisha)
Strikara Bhanj, the zamindar of Gumsur, refused to pay revenue in 1797.In 1800, he openly challenged British authority.
He received support from:
The British replaced the corrupt Collector Snodgrass to suppress the rebellion.
In 1804, Jagannath Deo was captured.However, the British eventually assigned certain districts back to Strikara Bhanj.
Although beyond the present chronology, this phase is important.Unable to pay revenue arrears, Dhananjaya Bhanj again revolted when British forces occupied Gumsur.Following his death in 1835, resistance continued under Doora Bisayi until 1837, when he was arrested and the zamindari was confiscated.
Region: Palamau (Present Jharkhand)
The political situation was complicated by:
In 1800, Bhukhan Singh, a Chero chief, launched a rebellion.British forces under Colonel Jones remained in the region for nearly two years to suppress it.
Following Bhukhan Singh's death in 1802, the rebellion gradually subsided.
Region: Tamil Nadu
The conflict began in 1781 when the Nawab of Arcot transferred the administration of Tinneveli and Carnatic Provinces to the East India Company.The Poligars (Palayakkarargal) regarded themselves as independent chiefs and strongly opposed British interference.
Veerapandiya Kattabomman Nayakan
Initially the dispute centred on taxation, but gradually developed into a wider political struggle against Company rule.
Kattabomman defeated Company forces in an early engagement.The British announced a reward for his capture.He escaped into the forests of Pudukottai.However, he was betrayed by Ettappan, the Raja of Pudukottai.
Kattabomman was captured and publicly hanged.His associates:
The Palayam of Panjalankurichi and estates of five supporting poligars were confiscated.
The rebellion became much more violent.The imprisoned poligars escaped from Palamcotta Fort.The rebels:
Oomathurai, brother of Kattabomman, joined:Marathu Pandian of Sivaganga.
The rebellion was crushed in October 1801.The Fort of Panjalankurichi was completely demolished.Its name was removed from official district records.The Nawab of Arcot permanently transferred the civil and military administration of the Carnatic to the Company.
The Poligars of North Arcot revolted after losing the hereditary right to collect Kaval Fees.
By 1805, the revolt was suppressed.Several chiefs were:
The Poligar rebellion extended over a vast region of South India.The rebels openly sought independence from alien rule, making it one of the earliest organised anti-British struggles.
Region: Haryana
The Jats fortified themselves at Bhiwani and resisted British authority.
The British required a strong brigade equipped with heavy artillery and battering rams to suppress the uprising.
Region: Travancore
After entering into a Subsidiary Alliance with Lord Wellesley (1805), Travancore faced severe financial obligations.The ruler failed to pay the heavy subsidy.The British Resident increasingly interfered in the internal affairs of the state.
Velu Thampi, the Dalawa (Prime Minister) of Travancore.
Velu Thampi issued the famous Kundara Proclamation, calling upon the people to:
The Nair troops actively supported Velu Thampi.Large-scale rebellion spread across Travancore.
The Maharaja eventually sided with the British.Facing defeat, Velu Thampi committed suicide to avoid capture.The revolt gradually ended.
Region: Bundelkhand (Present Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh)
Bundelkhand came under British rule after the Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803–1805).The province contained nearly 150 forts, whose chiefs strongly resisted British administration.
Killadar of Ajaygarh Fort.Refused to surrender the fort after expiry of the temporary arrangement.Finally surrendered in 1809.
Killadar of Kalanjar Fort.Resistance suppressed in 1812.
A famous military adventurer.He successfully evaded British forces for nearly four years.
The British finally restored order by binding hereditary chiefs through Ikarnamahs (contractual obligations).
| Year | Event |
|---|---|
| 1795–1799 | First Phase of Poligars' Revolt under Veerapandiya Kattabomman |
| 1797 | Strikara Bhanj refuses revenue payment (Gumsur); Peace Treaty with Pazhassi Raja |
| 1797–1805 | Resistance of Kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja |
| 1799 | Fall of Seringapatam; Revolt of Dhundia Wagh begins |
| 1799 | Civil Rebellion of Wazir Ali in Awadh; Massacre of Benares |
| 1799–1800 | Revolt of Dhundia Wagh |
| 1800 | Ganjam–Gumsur Uprising under Strikara Bhanj |
| 1800–1802 | Palamau Uprising under Bhukhan Singh |
| 1800–1805 | Second Phase of Pazhassi Raja's Resistance |
| 1801 | Second Phase of Poligars' Revolt under Oomathurai and Marathu Pandian |
| 1803–1805 | Third Phase of Poligars' Revolt (North Arcot) |
| 1804 | Jagannath Deo captured in Ganjam |
| 1805 | Death of Kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja; Suppression of Third Phase of Poligar Revolt |
| 1808–1809 | Velu Thampi's Revolt |
| 1808–1812 | Bundelkhand Disturbances |
| 1809 | Lakshaman Dawa surrenders; Bhiwani Uprising by Jats |
| 1812 | Suppression of Darya Singh's resistance |
| 1815 | Dhananjaya Bhanj surrenders (continuation of Gumsur issue) |
The period after 1813 witnessed continued resistance against British rule in different regions of India. These uprisings were mainly triggered by high land revenue, interference in internal administration, annexation policies, increased taxation, political humiliation of traditional rulers, and economic exploitation. Though regional in character, they reflected the widening opposition to British authority.
Region: Parlakimedi, Ganjam District (Present Odisha)
Parlakimedi was situated on the western border of Ganjam district.After acquiring Ganjam, the East India Company came into conflict with the ruling family of Parlakimedi.The ruler at that time was Narayan Deo.
Narayan Deo opposed British expansion and authority.To suppress him, the British dispatched an army under Colonel Peach.Narayan Deo was defeated in 1768, after which his son Gajapathi Deo was recognised as the zamindar.However, Narayan Deo, with the support of his sons and brothers, again organised resistance.
As disturbances continued, the Madras Presidency appointed George Russell as Commissioner of the region in 1832 with full powers to suppress the uprising.
Russell gradually restored British authority.The rebellion was finally pacified by 1834.
Region: Kutch (Present Gujarat)
A treaty was concluded in 1816 between the British and Maharaja Bharamal II, recognising his authority.Soon, however, internal conflict arose between:
The British interfered in these internal disputes.
In 1819, Bharamal II:
The local chiefs supported him.
The British defeated Bharamal II and deposed him.His infant son was placed on the throne.A British Resident, assisted by a Regency Council, became the effective ruler.
The Regency Council introduced:
These measures generated widespread resentment.The British reverses during the Burma War encouraged local chiefs to demand the restoration of Bharamal II.
Military action alone failed.The British ultimately adopted a conciliatory policy to restore peace.
Region: Bareilly (Present Uttar Pradesh)
The uprising was triggered by the imposition of a Police Tax.The issue assumed a religious dimension when Mufti Muhammad Aiwaz, a respected religious scholar, submitted a petition against the tax.
The situation worsened when police personnel injured a woman while collecting taxes.This provoked a violent clash between:
Within two days, armed Muslims from:
joined the movement.In April 1816, the rebels killed the son of Leycester, Judge of the Provincial Court.
The British deployed large military forces.More than:
The uprising reflected deep popular dissatisfaction with alien administration, even though it originated over taxation.
Region: Hathras (Present Uttar Pradesh)
Dayaram, the Talukdar of Hathras, possessed one of the strongest forts in India.The British had granted him the estate under a revenue farming arrangement.
Increasing revenue demands made it impossible for Dayaram to clear arrears.He also sheltered persons wanted by the British Government.
In February 1817, the British attacked Hathras.Dayaram defended the fort for more than 15 days before escaping.
He later surrendered under negotiated conditions and accepted a pension.Another important rebel, Bhagwant Singh, Raja of Mursan, also submitted to the British.
Region: Odisha
The Paikas were the traditional landed militia of Odisha.For their military and policing services, they enjoyed rent-free hereditary land grants.British conquest of Odisha in 1803 and the removal of the Raja of Khurda greatly reduced their position.
The rebellion was caused by:
Bakshi Jagabandhu Bidyadhar, former military chief of the Raja of Khurda.His ancestral estate Killa Rorang was confiscated by the Company in 1814, reducing him to poverty.
The arrival of Khonds from Gumsur in March 1817 triggered the rebellion.Jagabandhu received support from:
The movement became known as the Paika Bidroh.
The rebels initially forced Company troops to retreat.The uprising spread throughout Odisha.Jagabandhu was declared an outlaw but was sheltered by the Raja of Nayagarh.Even after Khurda came under British control, the rebels continued guerrilla warfare.
The rebellion was brutally suppressed by 1818.Many priests of the Jagannath Temple, Puri, who had sheltered Jagabandhu, were executed.Jagabandhu remained at large until 1825, when he surrendered under negotiated terms.(Some accounts mention his capture and death in captivity in 1829.)
The movement compelled the British to introduce several concessions:
Region: Okha Mandal (Present Gujarat)
The Waghera chiefs opposed:
The Wagheras repeatedly entered British territories during 1818–1819.
A peace treaty was concluded in November 1820, ending the conflict.
Region: Assam
Following the First Burma War (1824–1826), the British had promised to withdraw from Assam.Instead, they attempted to incorporate Ahom territories into Company dominions.
Gomdhar Konwar, an Ahom prince.Other important associates included:
The rebels assembled near Jorhat.Gomdhar Konwar was ceremonially proclaimed king.
The British adopted a conciliatory approach.They restored:
to Maharaja Purandar Singh Narendra.
Region: Surat (Gujarat)
The Government increased the Salt Duty from:
The people of Surat organised a powerful anti-British movement.Europeans became the targets of popular attacks.
The Government withdrew the increased salt duty.
The Government attempted to introduce:Bengal Standard Weights and Measures
People threatened:
The Government again withdrew its proposal.
Region: Kolhapur (Maharashtra)
The Gadkaris formed a hereditary military class responsible for guarding Maratha forts.Following administrative reorganisation after 1844, these garrisons were disbanded.
Large-scale unemployment among Gadkaris.
The rebels occupied:
Region: Savantvadi (Konkan Region)
The people had previously revolted against the British in:
The last uprising followed the deposition of their ruler.
British administrative interference and introduction of new laws.
The British gradually restored control through administrative measures.
The Wahabi Movement was primarily an Islamic revivalist movement, which later assumed an anti-British political character.
Syed Ahmed of Rai Bareilly
The movement was inspired by:
Syed Ahmed:
Syed Ahmed was recognised as the Imam.A nationwide organisation was established with:
Sithana in the North-West Frontier.
PatnaOther centres existed in:
The movement aimed to convert:Dar-ul-Harb (Land of War)intoDar-ul-Islam (Land of Islam).Initially, Jihad was directed against the Sikh Kingdom of Punjab.After the British annexed Punjab in 1849, the British became the principal target.
The Wahabis played an important role in spreading anti-British sentiment throughout India.
During the 1860s, the British:
Although weakened, Wahabi resistance continued into the 1880s and 1890s.
The movement was founded in 1840 by:Bhagat Jawahar Mal (Sian Saheb)in western Punjab.Its greatest leader later became:Baba Ram Singh, founder of the Namdhari Sikh Sect.
Initially, it was a religious reform movement.After British annexation of Punjab, it gradually transformed into a political movement.
The movement advocated:
The Kukas demanded:
The movement propagated the principles of:
long before these became major strategies of the Indian National Movement.
The British took strong measures against the movement between 1863 and 1872.In 1872, Baba Ram Singh was deported to Rangoon.
| Year | Event |
|---|---|
| 1813–1834 | Parlakimedi Outbreak |
| 1814 | Confiscation of Jagabandhu's estate (Killa Rorang) |
| 1816 | Treaty with Maharaja Bharamal II (Kutch); Bareilly Rising |
| 1817 | Hathras Upsurge |
| 1817 | Paika Rebellion begins under Bakshi Jagabandhu |
| 1818 | Paika Rebellion suppressed |
| 1818–1820 | Waghera Rising |
| 1820 | Peace Treaty with Wagheras |
| 1824–1826 | First Burma War (Background of Ahom Revolt) |
| 1825 | Jagabandhu surrenders (negotiated settlement) |
| 1828 | Ahom Revolt under Gomdhar Konwar |
| 1832 | George Russell appointed Commissioner (Parlakimedi) |
| 1834 | Parlakimedi Outbreak finally suppressed |
| 1840 | Kuka Movement founded by Bhagat Jawahar Mal |
| 1844 | Surat Salt Agitation; Gadkari Revolt (Kolhapur) |
| 1848 | Surat agitation against Bengal Standard Weights & Measures |
| 1849 | British annex Punjab; Wahabi movement redirects jihad against British rule |
When the East India Company acquired Ganjam, Raja Narayan Deo refused to accept British authority.The British defeated him in 1768 and installed his son Gajapathi Deo as the zamindar. However, Narayan Deo, supported by his sons and brothers, continued resisting British rule.
After the Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803–05), Bundelkhand came under British control.The province contained nearly 150 forts, each controlled by powerful hereditary chiefs who refused to surrender their autonomy.
The British finally controlled the region by:
A treaty between the British and Maharaja Bharamal II recognized his authority.Soon, conflicts emerged between:
Bharamal II:
The British defeated him and:
Administrative reforms by the British resulted in:
During the First Burmese War, British setbacks encouraged chiefs to rebel once again and demand restoration of Bharamal II.
Repeated military campaigns failed.Finally, the British adopted a conciliatory policy, reducing tensions.
The British imposed a Police Tax, which became highly unpopular.Religious leader Mufti Muhammad Aiwaz submitted a petition against the tax.
While collecting taxes, police officials injured a woman.This incident transformed public anger into violent resistance.
joined the revolt.In April 1816, rebels:
Large British military forces suppressed the revolt.
Although triggered by taxation, the movement reflected widespread resentment against alien administration.
Dayaram, Talukdar of Hathras.Another important leader:
Dayaram had accepted revenue farming under the Company.However:
The British decided to attack Hathras Fort.
British forces laid siege to the heavily fortified Hathras Fort.Dayaram resisted for over 15 days.Eventually:
Bhagwant Singh also submitted after pressure.
Highlighted resistance by taluqdars against excessive revenue demands.
The Paikas were:
In 1814, Bakshi Jagabandhu Bidyadhar lost his ancestral estate of Killa Rorang, reducing him to poverty.
Former military chief of the Raja of Khurda.
Last Raja of Khurda.
Arrival of Khonds from Gumsur encouraged rebellion.Jagabandhu led:
The rebellion became known as the Paika Bidroh.British forces suffered temporary defeats.The revolt spread across large parts of Odisha.
Although Khurda returned to British control by mid-1817:
British brutally suppressed the movement.
Jagabandhu surrendered under negotiated terms.(Some accounts mention capture and death in 1829.)
The British introduced important concessions:
The Waghera chiefs:
A peace treaty was signed in November 1820, bringing the conflict to an end.
Reflected combined opposition against:
After the First Burmese War (1824–26):
This led to widespread resentment.
The rebels assembled near Jorhat.Gomdhar Konwar was formally proclaimed king.
Instead of prolonged warfare, the Company adopted a conciliatory approach.Upper Assam was restored to:
Part of the Ahom kingdom was returned.
| Year | Event |
|---|---|
| 1808–1812 | Disturbances in Bundelkhand |
| 1813–1834 | Parlakimedi Outbreak |
| 1816 | Kutch Rebellion begins |
| 1816 | Rising at Bareilly |
| 1817 | Hathras Upsurge |
| 1817 | Paika Rebellion |
| 1818–1820 | Waghera Rising |
| 1819 | Bharamal II deposed in Kutch |
| 1825 | Jagabandhu surrendered |
| 1828 | Ahom Revolt |
| 1832 | George Russell appointed Commissioner in Parlakimedi |
| 1834 | Parlakimedi Outbreak suppressed |
The British government's revenue policies caused widespread public resentment in Surat.Unlike many earlier revolts led by rulers or zamindars, this agitation was largely an urban popular movement.
The government increased the salt duty from:
This sharp increase directly affected the common people.
The British withdrew the enhanced salt duty.
The government attempted to introduce the Bengal Standard Weights and Measures in Surat.
People organized:
The united opposition forced the government to withdraw the measure.
The Gadkaris were:
After 1844, administrative reorganization led to:
The Gadkaris:
The revolt represented the reaction of hereditary military classes against British administrative reforms.
Public resentment already existed because:
The British introduced several administrative laws to strengthen control over the region.
One of the longest continuing regional resistances on the western coast.
The Wahabi Movement was primarily:
Syed Ahmed of Rai Bareilly
Religious Objectives
Political Objectives
Syed Ahmed established:
Sithana in the north-west tribal belt.
Initially, Jihad was declared against the Sikh Kingdom of Punjab.
After Punjab was annexed by the East India Company:
During the 1860s:
However, isolated resistance continued into the 1880s–1890s.
Initially:
Later:
Bhagat Jawahar Mal (Sian Saheb)
Baba Ram SinghFounder of the Namdhari Sikh Sect.
After the British annexed Punjab, the movement became openly political.
The Kukas advocated:
Thus, they propagated the ideas of:
many decades before they became part of the national movement.
The British launched severe repression against the movement.
Baba Ram Singh was deported to Rangoon.
| Year | Event |
|---|---|
| 1830 | Savantvadi Revolt (first major phase) |
| 1830–1860s | Wahabi Movement |
| 1836 | Savantvadi Revolt renewed |
| 1838 | Savantvadi uprising after deposition of ruler |
| 1840 | Kuka Movement founded by Bhagat Jawahar Mal |
| 1844 | Surat Salt Agitation against increase in salt duty |
| 1844 | Gadkari Revolt (Kolhapur) |
| 1844–1859 | Continued Savantvadi Revolts |
| 1848 | Surat agitation against Bengal Standard Weights and Measures |
| 1849 | Punjab annexed; Wahabi Movement shifted focus to British rule |
| 1863–1872 | British suppression of Kuka Movement |
| 1872 | Baba Ram Singh deported to Rangoon |
Peasant movements before 1857 were primarily directed against:
Although many movements acquired religious overtones, their fundamental issues were economic and agrarian. In several cases, religion became a means of organizing peasants against colonial authority and oppressive landlords.
Mir Nithar Ali (1782–1831), popularly known as Titu Mir.
Titu Mir inspired Muslim peasants and tenants to resist:
The movement gradually developed both agrarian and religious dimensions.
The uprising represented:
It is often regarded as the first armed peasant uprising against British rule.
The movement eventually merged with the Wahabi Movement.
Karam Shah
Tipu, son of Karam Shah.
The movement mainly consisted of:
The peasants opposed:
Between 1825 and 1835, the Pagal Panthis:
The government initially attempted an equitable settlement to protect peasants.Later, the movement was violently suppressed.
Haji Shariat-Allah
Dadu Mian (1819–1860)
The Faraizis advocated:
From 1838 to 1857, the movement expanded throughout Eastern Bengal.The peasants organized themselves under Dadu Mian's leadership.
Many Faraizis later joined the Wahabi Movement.
The Moplah peasants revolted because of:
Between 1836 and 1854, there were:
Despite repeated resistance, none succeeded.
The uprisings reflected continuous agrarian discontent in Malabar under British rule.
During the Non-Cooperation Movement, the Moplahs again revolted with support from:
Later, communal tensions weakened the movement, and by 1921 it was suppressed.
Peasant participation was significant only in certain regions, particularly:
Following suppression of the revolt, the British changed their agrarian policy.They sought the support of:
The interests of ordinary peasants were neglected.
Occupancy peasants could not benefit from the Bengal Rent Act, 1859.
In several areas, peasants who had participated in the revolt were punished by:
The post-1857 agrarian policy strengthened landlordism while weakening peasant rights.
| Year | Event |
|---|---|
| 1825–1835 | Pagal Panthi Movement |
| 1831 | Narkelberia Uprising led by Titu Mir |
| 1836–1854 | Moplah Uprisings |
| 1838–1857 | Faraizi Revolt |
| 1857 | Active peasant participation in Revolt of 1857 |
| 1859 | Bengal Rent Act (peasants of Awadh excluded from benefits) |
Among all forms of resistance against British rule before 1857, tribal movements were the most frequent, militant and violent.Unlike many civil uprisings, tribal rebellions primarily arose due to British interference in tribal land, forests, traditional administration and customary rights.Most of the important tribal movements were concentrated in:
The tribal movements of the North-East Frontier differed considerably from those of mainland India.
The major cause of mainland tribal rebellions was the loss of traditional control over land and forests.The British introduced new land settlements which destroyed the tribal system of joint ownership of land and disrupted their traditional social order.Expansion of settled agriculture led to:
The British also restricted:
The establishment of Reserved Forests further deprived tribes of their traditional livelihood.
Another important factor was the exploitation by:
These outsiders exploited tribal communities through debt, forced labour and unfair trade.General British laws also interfered with tribal customs and traditional institutions.Christian missionaries entered tribal regions, and since they were seen as representatives of foreign rule, they were also opposed by many tribal communities.
The tribal movements of the North-East had a different character.Unlike mainland tribes:
Many frontier tribes shared ethnic and cultural links with communities across international borders.Their movements often demanded:
British expansion into the North-East occurred much later than in mainland India.Therefore, resistance continued for a much longer period.
Another important feature was the rise of De-Sanskritisation movements.For example:During the reign of Churchand Maharaja (1891–1941), the Meiteis opposed the influence of Neo-Vaishnavite Brahmins.Unlike other parts of India, Sanskritisation movements were largely absent in the North-East during the colonial period.
Despite occurring in different regions and periods, tribal rebellions shared several common characteristics.
Ethnic solidarity formed the basis of resistance.Violence was mainly directed against:
Poor labourers and artisans generally were not attacked because they formed part of village society.
The British administration was viewed as an alien government attempting to destroy tribal traditions and customary rights.
Many movements were led by charismatic leaders who promised liberation from oppression and restoration of traditional order.
Most tribal rebels fought with:
They were unable to match the superior military technology of the British.
The Pahariyas, known for their martial traditions.
British expansion into tribal territories threatened their independence.
The Pahariyas resisted British penetration into the Raj Mahal Hills.
To restore peace, the British declared the area as:Damni-Kol Area
One of the earliest tribal revolts against British territorial expansion.
The Chuars were tribal cultivators and hunters who held land under a feudal system.Economic distress caused by:
pushed them into rebellion.
Jagannath Singh, Zamindar of Ghatsila, led thousands of Chuars against the British.Initially, the Company was forced to compromise.
Another uprising occurred under:
This revolt was suppressed.
The most important uprising occurred under:Durjan (Durjol) SinghFormer Zamindar of Raipur.
British revenue regulations deprived him of his estate.When Raipur Estate was auctioned:
The revolt was brutally crushed.
Raja of Parahat
British occupation of Singhbhum.
The Ho tribe fought continuously against British occupation.
By 1827, they were forced to surrender.
The British introduced:
These measures threatened traditional tribal society.
The Hos joined the Mundas in rebellion.
Major resistance was suppressed by 1832, but Ho resistance continued until 1837.
One of the earliest combined tribal uprisings against colonial land policies.
Buddho Bhagat
Large-scale transfer of tribal land to:
Other causes included:
The Kols attacked outsiders.Nearly 1,000 outsiders were:
Large military expeditions finally crushed the rebellion.
One of the fiercest tribal uprisings before 1857.
| Year | Event |
|---|---|
| 1766–1772 | First Phase of Chuar Uprisings |
| 1768 | Jagannath Singh led Chuar revolt |
| 1771 | Chuar uprising under Shyam Ganjan, Subla Singh and Dubraj |
| 1778 | Pahariyas' Rebellion |
| 1795–1816 | Second Phase of Chuar Uprisings |
| 1798 | Durjan Singh led major Chuar uprising |
| 1820–1827 | Ho Uprising |
| 1827 | Ho tribe surrendered |
| 1831 | Kol Uprising under Buddho Bhagat |
| 1831–1837 | Ho-Munda Uprising |
| 1832 | Main Ho-Munda rebellion suppressed |
| 1837 | Final suppression of Ho resistance |
The Santhals were primarily an agricultural tribal community who had migrated to the plains of the Rajmahal Hills.
The Santhals suffered severe exploitation by:
The moneylenders, supported by the colonial administration, subjected them to:
The movement gradually transformed from a struggle against local exploiters into an anti-British rebellion.
(two brothers)
Sidhu and Kanhu mobilized thousands of Santhals.They declared:
The rebels attacked:
By 1856, the British suppressed the rebellion through extensive military operations.
Hilly tracts extending from:
Chakra Bisoi
The Khonds opposed:
These measures threatened their traditional social and political system.
The Khonds, joined by:
conducted prolonged resistance against Company rule.
With the disappearance of Chakra Bisoi, the movement gradually declined.
Eastern Godavari region (Andhra Pradesh)
The Koyas opposed:
First rebellion.
Renewed uprising.
Another revolt.
Fresh rebellion.
Continued resistance.
Another phase of revolt.
Led by Tomma Sora.
Another rebellion led by Raja Anantayyar.
The repeated revolts reflected continuous tribal opposition to British forest and administrative policies.
The Bhils suffered from:
Major revolt against Company rule.The British combined:
to suppress the movement.
Another uprising.
Renewed revolt.
Fresh rebellion.
Govind Guru organized the Bhils of South Rajasthan to establish Bhil Raj.
One of the longest continuing tribal resistance movements in western India.
Western Ghats
The Kolis opposed:
First uprising.
Second revolt.
Major series of rebellions.
The movement reflected resistance against administrative reorganization and economic displacement.
Western Ghats
The Ramosis had traditionally served under the Maratha administration.
The British:
This caused widespread unemployment and resentment.
Led by Chittur Singh.The rebels plundered areas around Satara.
Led by:
Resistance continued.
Fresh disturbances after deposition of Raja Pratap Singh of Satara.
Further outbreaks occurred.
The British eventually:
Illustrated the resistance of former Maratha military communities against British annexation.
Unlike mainland tribal rebellions, North-East tribal movements generally aimed at protecting political autonomy, territorial independence and tribal identity.
Between:
Tirath Singh
(Ruler of Nunklow)
The British planned to construct a road linking:
Large numbers of:
entered Khasi territory.The Khasis viewed this as foreign intrusion.
The following tribes united:
under Tirath Singh.The movement became a popular anti-British revolt.
By 1833, superior British military forces crushed the uprising.
One of the earliest organized tribal movements in North-East India.
Assam–Burma border
Although an early revolt in the 1830s was suppressed quickly, the Singphos continued resisting British authority.
The rebels killed the British Political Agent in Assam.
Chief Nirang Phidu led another major uprising.The rebels attacked:
Many soldiers were killed.
Demonstrated continuous armed resistance by frontier tribes despite repeated British campaigns.
| Year | Event |
|---|---|
| 1803 | First Koya Revolt |
| 1817–1819 | First major Bhil Revolt |
| 1822 | Ramosi Rising under Chittur Singh |
| 1825 | Bhil Revolt |
| 1825–1826 | Ramosi Rising under Umaji Naik |
| 1829 | Khasi Uprising begins |
| 1829 | Koli Rising |
| 1829 | Continued Ramosi resistance |
| 1830s | Early Singpho Rebellion |
| 1831 | Bhil Revolt |
| 1833 | Khasi Uprising suppressed |
| 1836 | Mishmi Revolt |
| 1837–1856 | Khond Uprisings |
| 1839 | Koli Rising |
| 1839 | Singpho uprising; British Political Agent killed |
| 1839 | Ramosi disturbances after deposition of Raja Pratap Singh |
| 1839–1842 | Khampti Rebellion |
| 1840 | Koya Revolt |
| 1840–1841 | Ramosi disturbances |
| 1842 | First Lushai Revolt |
| 1843 | Singpho Rebellion under Nirang Phidu |
| 1844 | Second Lushai Revolt |
| 1844–1848 | Koli Risings |
| 1845 | Koya Revolt |
| 1846 | Bhil Revolt |
| 1855–1856 | Santhal Rebellion |
| 1856 | Khond Uprisings end |
| 1858 | Koya Revolt (post-1857 phase) |
| 1861 | Koya Revolt |
| 1862 | Koya Revolt |
| 1879–1880 | Koya Revolt under Tomma Sora |
| 1886 | Koya Revolt under Raja Anantayyar |
| 1913 | Govind Guru's Bhil movement for Bhil Raj |
The Waghera chiefs opposed both the Gaekwad of Baroda and the British, who supported the Gaekwad's authority. The increasing interference of the British in local administration and revenue matters created widespread resentment.
During the First Anglo-Burmese War (1824–1826), the British had promised to restore Assam after defeating Burma. Instead, they attempted to incorporate Ahom territory into Company rule.
Initially suppressed through military action.Later, the Company adopted a conciliatory policy.
Part of Upper Assam was restored to Maharaja Purandar Singh, reducing immediate tensions.
A treaty between the British and Maharaja Bharamal II was signed in 1816, but British interference in internal politics soon increased.
Military suppression failed to completely control the situation.The Company finally adopted a conciliatory policy, reducing tensions.
Imposition of a new Police Tax.
The issue acquired a religious dimension when Mufti Muhammad Aiwaz submitted a petition against the tax.
During tax collection, police injured a woman, provoking widespread public anger.
Large military forces were deployed.
The Hathras fort was regarded as one of the strongest forts in India, with:
The British launched a large-scale attack.Dayaram resisted for over 15 days before escaping.Eventually, he accepted British authority and was granted a pension.Bhagwant Singh also surrendered after being compelled to dismantle his fort.
The Paikas were the traditional hereditary militia (foot soldiers) of Odisha who held rent-free lands in return for military and policing services.
British conquest of Odisha in 1803 and deposition of the Raja of Khurda severely reduced the prestige and privileges of the Paikas.
In 1814, Bakshi Jagabandhu Bidyadhar lost his ancestral estate of Killa Rorang, reducing him to poverty.
Arrival of Khonds from Gumsur triggered the rebellion.The Paikas defeated Company troops in several engagements.Large parts of Odisha temporarily came under rebel influence.Jagabandhu was declared an outlaw but continued guerrilla warfare.Many local rulers, including the Raja of Nayagarh, sheltered him.
Jagabandhu surrendered under negotiated terms.(Some accounts mention capture and death in captivity in 1829.)
The rebellion compelled the British to introduce several concessions:
Next Part (Part 10):
| Year / Period | Event / Uprising | Region |
|---|---|---|
| 1763–1800 | Sanyasi–Fakir Revolt | Bengal & Bihar |
| 1766–1774 | Revolt in Midnapore & Dhalbhum | Bengal (Jungle Mahals) |
| 1766–1772 | First Chuar Uprising | Midnapore & Bankura |
| 1768 | Revolt of Jagannath Singh (Ghatsila) | Jungle Mahals |
| 1769–1799 | Moamaria Revolt | Assam |
| 1770 | Great Bengal Famine (Background to Sanyasi Revolt) | Bengal |
| 1771 | Second Phase of Chuar Uprising | Jungle Mahals |
| 1772 | New Land Revenue System introduced in Midnapore | Bengal |
| 1778 | Pahariyas' Rebellion | Rajmahal Hills |
| 1778 | Alexander Hannay appointed Ijaradar | Gorakhpur–Bahraich |
| 1781 | Civil Uprising in Gorakhpur, Basti & Bahraich | Awadh Region |
| 1790 | British recognise Kottayam's independence (later violated) | Malabar |
| 1790–1792 | Third Anglo-Mysore War | South India |
| 1792 | Revolt of King Krishnanarayan (Darrang) | Assam |
| 1793 | British capture Raja of Vizianagaram | Northern Circars |
| 1793 | Peasant Resistance under Pazhassi Raja begins | Malabar |
| 1794 | Battle of Padmanabham; Death of Raja of Vizianagaram | Andhra Pradesh |
| 1795–1805 | Poligars' Revolt | Tamil Nadu |
| 1797 | Pazhassi Raja's First Revolt ends with Peace Treaty | Kerala |
| 1797 | Strikara Bhanj refuses revenue payment | Ganjam |
| 1797 | Wazir Ali becomes Nawab of Awadh | Awadh |
| 1798 | Major Chuar Revolt under Durjan Singh | Bengal |
| 1799 | Revolt of Dhundia Wagh begins | Mysore–Karnataka |
| 1799 | Fall of Seringapatam & Death of Tipu Sultan | Mysore |
| 1799 | Civil Rebellion of Wazir Ali (Massacre of Benares) | Benares |
| 1800 | Ganjam Uprising | Odisha |
| 1800 | Palamau Uprising | Jharkhand |
| 1800 | Second Phase of Pazhassi Raja's Revolt | Kerala |
| 1800 | Dhundia Wagh reorganises resistance | Karnataka |
| 1800 | Bhukhan Singh's Revolt | Palamau |
| 1800 | Open Rebellion of Strikara Bhanj | Ganjam |
| 1800 (Sept.) | Death of Dhundia Wagh | Karnataka |
| 1801 | Second Phase of Poligar Revolt | Tamil Nadu |
| 1801 | Marudhu Pandian Revolt suppressed | Sivaganga |
| 1802 | Death of Bhukhan Singh | Palamau |
| 1803 | British conquer Odisha | Odisha |
| 1803 | First Koya Revolt | Eastern Godavari |
| 1803–1805 | Second Anglo-Maratha War | Central India |
| 1804 | Jagannath Deo captured | Ganjam |
| 1805 | End of Poligar Revolt | Tamil Nadu |
| 1805 | Death of Pazhassi Raja | Kerala |
| 1805 | Subsidiary Alliance imposed on Travancore | Kerala |
| 1806 | Vellore Mutiny | Tamil Nadu |
| 1807–1808 | Dhananjaya Bhanj usurps Gumsur | Odisha |
| 1808–1809 | Velu Thampi Revolt | Travancore |
| 1808–1812 | Bundelkhand Disturbances | Bundelkhand |
| 1808 | Lakshman Dawa resists British | Ajaygarh |
| 1809 | Surrender of Lakshman Dawa | Bundelkhand |
| 1809 | Jat Uprising in Bhiwani | Haryana |
| 1810 | House Tax Agitation | Benares |
| 1812 | Darya Singh's Resistance suppressed | Kalanjar |
| 1813–1834 | Parlakimedi Outbreak | Odisha |
| 1814 | Jagabandhu loses Killa Rorang | Odisha |
| 1815 | Dhananjaya Bhanj surrenders | Ganjam |
| 1816 | Kutch Treaty | Gujarat |
| 1816 | Rising at Bareilly | Uttar Pradesh |
| 1817 | Hathras Uprising | Uttar Pradesh |
| 1817 | Paika Rebellion | Odisha |
| 1817–1819 | Bhil Revolts | Western India |
| 1818 | Guerrilla Phase of Paika Revolt | Odisha |
| 1818–1820 | Waghera Rising | Gujarat |
| 1819 | British depose Rao Bharamal II | Kutch |
| 1820 | Ho Revolt begins | Singhbhum |
| 1820 | Peace Treaty with Wagheras | Gujarat |
| 1822 | Ramosi Rising under Chittur Singh | Maharashtra |
| 1824 | Barrackpore Mutiny (47th Native Infantry) | Bengal |
| 1824–1826 | First Anglo-Burmese War | Northeast |
| 1825 | Jagabandhu surrenders | Odisha |
| 1825 | Bhil Revolt | Western India |
| 1825 | Pagal Panthi Movement intensifies | Bengal |
| 1825–1826 | Ramosi Revolt under Umaji Naik | Maharashtra |
| 1825 | Grenadier Company Revolt | Assam |
| 1827 | First Ho Revolt suppressed | Singhbhum |
| 1828 | Ahom Revolt | Assam |
| 1829 | Koli Rising | Western India |
| 1829 | Death of Jagabandhu (according to some sources) | Odisha |
| 1829–1833 | Khasi Uprising | Meghalaya |
| 1830 | Singpho Rebellion begins | Assam |
| 1830 | Kuka Movement founded (religious phase begins in 1840, political later) | Punjab |
| 1830–1831 | Singpho Resistance | Assam |
| 1831 | Kol Uprising | Chotanagpur |
| 1831 | Ho–Munda Revolt | Chotanagpur |
| 1831 | Narkelberia (Titu Mir) Uprising | Bengal |
| 1832 | Ho Revolt suppressed | Jharkhand |
| 1832 | British appoint George Russell at Parlakimedi | Odisha |
| 1833 | Khasi Revolt suppressed | Meghalaya |
| 1833 | Sholapur Mutiny | Maharashtra |
| 1834 | Parlakimedi Outbreak ends | Odisha |
| 1835 | Second Gumsur Revolt | Odisha |
| 1835 | Death of Dhananjaya Bhanj | Odisha |
| 1835 | Pagal Panthi Movement declines | Bengal |
| 1836 | Mishmi Revolt | Northeast |
| 1836–1854 | Moplah Uprisings | Malabar |
| 1837 | Gumsur Revolt suppressed | Odisha |
| 1837 | Khond Uprisings begin | Odisha–Andhra |
| 1837 | Ho Resistance ends | Jharkhand |
| 1838 | Sholapur Mutiny / Indian Regiment Revolt | Maharashtra |
| 1838–1857 | Faraizi Revolt | Eastern Bengal |
| 1839 | Singpho Rebellion (Political Agent killed) | Assam |
| 1839 | Khampti Revolt begins | Assam |
| 1839 | Ramosi Disturbances | Maharashtra |
| 1840 | Surat Salt Agitation | Gujarat |
| 1840 | Koya Revolt | Andhra Pradesh |
| 1840 | Kuka Movement founded by Bhagat Jawahar Mal | Punjab |
| 1841 | Ramosi Disturbances continue | Maharashtra |
| 1842 | Lushai Revolt | Northeast |
| 1843 | Nirang Phidu's Singpho Revolt | Assam |
| 1844 | Surat Salt Agitation against Salt Duty | Gujarat |
| 1844 | Boycott against Standard Weights & Measures | Surat |
| 1844 | Kolhapur Gadkari Revolt | Maharashtra |
| 1844 | Savantvadi Revolt begins | Konkan |
| 1844 | Mutiny of 34th Native Infantry | Bengal Army |
| 1844–1848 | Koli Risings | Western India |
| 1845 | Koya Revolt | Andhra Pradesh |
| 1846 | Bhil Revolt | Western India |
| 1848 | Surat Passive Resistance | Gujarat |
| 1849 | Punjab Annexation; Wahabi movement turns anti-British | Punjab |
| 1849 | Mutiny of 22nd Native Infantry | Bengal Army |
| 1850 | Mutiny of 66th Native Infantry | Bengal Army |
| 1852 | Mutiny of 37th Native Infantry | Bengal Army |
| 1855–1856 | Santhal Rebellion | Rajmahal Hills |
| 1856 | General Service Enlistment Act | British Indian Army |
| 1857 | Revolt of 1857 | Northern & Central India |